„Haitianisches Massaker von 1804“ – Versionsunterschied

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{{Short description|Massacre of the White French people in Haiti by Black Haitians following the Haitian Revolution}}
{{Infobox civilian attack
| title = 1804 Haiti massacre
| partof = the aftermath of the [[Haitian Revolution]]
| image = Manuel Lopez Lopez - Fue muerta y destroiada nel campo esta infelir p. haver resistido alos deseos brutales de los negros y el niño pererio de hambre asulado buscando el becho yerto desu madre.jpg
| caption = Engraving depicting a killing during the massacre
| location = [[First Empire of Haiti]]
| date = {{Nowrap|{{Start date|1804|02}} – {{Start date and age|1804|04|22|df=yes}}}}
| fatalities = 3,000–5,000
| injuries = Unknown
| target = [[Demographics of Europe|European people]] (predominantly [[French people]]), [[Mulatto Haitians|mulattoes]]
| type = [[Massacre]], [[genocide]]<ref name=":0" />
| perpetrators = Army of [[Jean-Jacques Dessalines]]
| motive =
}}
The '''1804 Haiti massacre''', sometimes referred to as the '''Haitian Genocide''',<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Girard |first=Philippe R. |date=2005 |title=Caribbean genocide: racial war in Haiti, 1802–4 |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00313220500106196 |journal=Patterns of Prejudice |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=138–161 |doi=10.1080/00313220500106196 |issn=0031-322X |s2cid=145204936 |quote=The Haitian genocide and its historical counterparts [...] The 1804 Haitian genocide}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Moses |first1=Dirk A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pTfdAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA63 |title=Colonialism and Genocide |last2=Stone |first2=Dan |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-99753-5 |pages=63 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Forde |first=James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YfgEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA40 |title=The Early Haitian State and the Question of Political Legitimacy: American and British Representations of Haiti, 1804—1824 |date=2020 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-030-52608-5 |pages=40 |language=en}}</ref> was carried out by [[Afro-Haitians|Afro-Haitian]] soldiers, mostly former [[Slavery in Haiti|slaves]], under orders from [[Jean-Jacques Dessalines]] against much of the remaining [[White Haitians|European population in Haiti]], which mainly included [[French people]].<ref name="World's Great Men of Color, Volume II - J.A. Rogers - Google Books">{{Cite book |last=Rogers |first=J. A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uTiEe2g56d4C |title=World's Great Men of Color, Volume II |date=2010-07-06 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-1-4516-0307-1 |language=en}}</ref>{{pageneeded|date=August 2023}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Orizio |first=Riccardo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UbicFX_JGjAC |title=Lost White Tribes: The End of Privilege and the Last Colonials in Sri Lanka, Jamaica, Brazil, Haiti, Namibia, and Guadeloupe |date=2001 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-0-7432-1197-0 |language=en}}</ref>{{pageneeded|date=August 2023}} The [[Haitian Revolution]] defeated the French army in November 1803 and the [[Haitian Declaration of Independence]] happened on 1 January 1804.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sutherland |first=Claudia |url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/haitian-revolution-1791-1804/ |title=Haitian Revolution (1791-1804) |date=16 July 2007 |website=Blackpast.org |access-date=17 June 2022}}</ref> From February 1804{{sfnp|Girard|2011|pp=319–322}} until 22 April 1804, squads of soldiers moved from house to house throughout Haiti, torturing and killing entire families.<ref name="Danner p107">{{cite book |last=Danner |first=Mark |title=Stripping Bare the Body: Politics, Violence, War |date=2009 |publisher=Nation Books |location=New York |isbn=978-1-5685-8413-3 |page=107}}</ref> Between 3,000 and 5,000 people were killed.{{sfnp|Girard|2011|pp=319–322}}


[[Jean-Jacques Dessalines]] führte die französische Kolonie Sainte Domingue in the Unabhängigkeit. Nach einigen erfolgreichen Kämpfen errange er Siege über die Truppen Napoleons. Das Land wurde 1804 als Haiti unabhängig, und Dessalines wurde der erste Präsident. Im Rahmen dieser Ereignisse töteten Haitianische Truppen im Jahr 1804 Europäer. Dabei wurde sehr selektiv gegen Franzosen vorgegangen.<ref name="World's Great Men of Color, Volume II - J.A. Rogers - Google Books">{{Cite book |last=Rogers |first=J. A. |title=World's Great Men of Color, Volume II |publisher=Simon and Schuster |date=2010-07-06 |language=en |isbn=978-1-4516-0307-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uTiEe2g56d4C}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Orizio |first=Riccardo |title=Lost White Tribes: The End of Privilege and the Last Colonials in Sri Lanka, Jamaica, Brazil, Haiti, Namibia, and Guadeloupe |publisher=Simon and Schuster |date=2001 |language=en |isbn=978-0-7432-1197-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UbicFX_JGjAC}}</ref> Diese Ereignisse werden heute '''Massaker von Haiti von 1804''', oder '''Haitianischer Genozid''' genannt.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Girard |first=Philippe R. |title=Caribbean genocide: racial war in Haiti, 1802–4 |work=Patterns of Prejudice |issue=2 |volume=39 |pages=138–161 |quote=The Haitian genocide and its historical counterparts [...] The 1804 Haitian genocide |date=2005 |issn=0031-322X |doi=10.1080/00313220500106196 |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00313220500106196}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Moses |first=Dirk A. |last2=Stone |first2=Dan |title=Colonialism and Genocide |publisher=Routledge |date=2013 |language=en |page=63 |isbn=978-1-317-99753-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pTfdAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA63}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Forde |first=James |title=The Early Haitian State and the Question of Political Legitimacy: American and British Representations of Haiti, 1804—1824 |publisher=Springer |date=2020 |language=en |page=40 |isbn=978-3-030-52608-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YfgEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA40}}</ref> Im Rahmen der Revolution von Haiti war die napoleonische Armee 1803 geschlagen worden. Die Haitianische Unabhängigkeitserklärung erfolgte am 1 January 1804.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sutherland |first=Claudia |title=Haitian Revolution (1791-1804) |date=16 July 2007 |url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/haitian-revolution-1791-1804/ |website=Blackpast.org |access-date=17 June 2022}}</ref> In der Zeit von Februar 1804 bis zum 22. April zogen Truppen von Haus zu Haus. Sie folterten und töteten ganze Familien.<ref name="Danner p107">{{Cite book |last=Danner |first=Mark |title=Stripping Bare the Body: Politics, Violence, War |publisher=Nation Books |location=New York |date=2009 |page=107 |isbn=978-1-5685-8413-3}}</ref> Insgesammt fielen ihnen zwischwen 3.000 und 5.000 Personen zum Ofper.<ref name="Danner p107" />
The massacre excluded surviving [[Polish Haitians|Polish Legionnaires]], who had defected from the French legion to become allied with the enslaved Africans, as well as the [[German Haitians|Germans]] who did not take part of the slave trade. They were instead granted full citizenship under the constitution and classified them as ''Noir'', the new ruling ethnicity. <ref name="autogenerated1">Girard, Philippe R. (2011). ''The Slaves Who Defeated Napoleon: Toussaint Louverture and the Haitian War of Independence 1801–1804''. [[Tuscaloosa, Alabama]]: [[University of Alabama Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-8173-1732-4}}{{page needed|date = May 2022}}</ref>


Nicholas Robins, [[Adam Jones (Canadian scholar)|Adam Jones]], and [[A. Dirk Moses|Dirk Moses]] theorize that the executions were a "genocide of the [[Subaltern (postcolonialism)|subaltern]]", in which an oppressed group uses [[Genocide|genocidal]] means to destroy its oppressors.{{r|Robins & Jones}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Klävers |first=Steffen |url= |title=Decolonizing Auschwitz?: Komparativ-postkoloniale Ansätze in der Holocaustforschung |date=2019 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG |isbn=978-3-11-060041-4 |pages=110 |language=de}}</ref> Philippe Girard has suggested the threat of [[Haitian Revolution#Rebellion against reimposition of slavery|reinvasion and reinstatement of slavery]] as some of the reasons for the massacre.{{sfnp|Girard|2005a|pp=}}


Polnische Legionnäre, welche die Seiten gewechelt hatten und die versklavten Afrikaner unterstützten, sowie Deutsche Einwanderer, welche sich nicht am Sklavenhandel beteiligten, wurden systematisch verschont. Sie erhielten stattdessen das Bürgerrecht, und wurden als Noir, also als Mitglied der neuen herrschenden Klasse, eingestuft.
Throughout the early-to-mid nineteenth century, the events of the massacre were well known in the United States. Additionally, many [[Saint Dominicans|Saint Dominican]] refugees moved from Saint-Domingue to the U.S., settling in [[New Orleans]], [[Charleston, South Carolina|Charleston]], [[New York City|New York]], [[Baltimore]], and other coastal cities. These events spurred fears of potential uprisings in the [[Southern United States|Southern U.S.]] and they also polarized public opinion on the question of the abolition of slavery.<ref name="Julius 2004">{{cite book |last1=Julius |first1=Kevin C. |title=The abolitionist decade, 1829-1838 : a year-by-year history of early events in the antislavery movement |date=2004 |publisher=McFarland & Co |location=Jefferson, N.C. |isbn=0-7864-1946-6}}{{Page needed|date=June 2022}}</ref><ref name="Marcotte p171">{{cite book |last1=Marcotte |first1=Frank B. |title=Six days in April : Lincoln and the Union in peril |date=2005 |publisher=Algora Publishing |location=New York |isbn=0-8758-6313-2 |page=171}}</ref>


Nicholas Robins, Adam Jones, und [[A. Dirk Moses|Dirk Moses]] vertreten die Ansicht, diese Exekutionen seinen ein "Gezid der Subalternität", in welchem eine unterdrückte Gruppe Elemente des [[Genozid|Genozids]] verwendet, um ihre Unterdrücker zu zerstören.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Klävers |first=Steffen |title=Decolonizing Auschwitz?: Komparativ-postkoloniale Ansätze in der Holocaustforschung |publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG |date=2019 |language=de |page=110 |isbn=978-3-11-060041-4 |url=}}</ref>
==Background==
===Slavery===
{{Further|Slavery in Haiti}}
[[Henri Christophe]]'s personal secretary,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.travelinghaiti.com/christophes-kingdom-petions-republic/ |title=Christophe's Kingdom and Pétion's Republic |website=Travelinghaiti.com |access-date=17 June 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Henley |first=Jon |date=2010-01-14 |title=Haiti: a long descent to hell |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/jan/14/haiti-history-earthquake-disaster |access-date=2023-07-08 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> who was enslaved for much of his life, attempted to explain the incident by referencing the cruel treatment of black slaves by white slaveholders in [[Saint-Domingue]]:<ref>{{cite book |title=Written in Blood: The Story of the Haitian People, 1492–1995 |last1=Heinl |first1=Michael |last2=Heinl |first2=Robert Debs |last3=Heinl |first3=Nancy Gordon |year=2005 |edition=Revised |publisher=Univ. Press of America |location=Lanham, Md; London |isbn=0-7618-3177-0 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/writteninbloodst00hein/page/n2/mode/1up?view=theater}}{{Page needed|date=June 2022}}</ref>
{{blockquote|Have they not [[Hanging|hung up]] men with heads downward, [[Drowning|drowned]] them in sacks, [[Crucifixion|crucified]] them on planks, [[Premature burial|buried them alive]], [[Crushing (execution)|crushed]] them in mortars? Have they not forced them to [[Coprophagia|consume faeces]]? And, having [[Flaying|flayed]] them with the lash, have they not cast them alive to be devoured by worms, or onto anthills, or lashed them to stakes in the swamp to be devoured by mosquitoes? Have they not [[Death by boiling|thrown them into boiling cauldrons]] of [[Sugarcane|cane syrup]]? Have they not put men and women inside barrels studded with spikes and rolled them down mountainsides into the abyss? Have they not consigned these miserable blacks to man eating-dogs until the latter, sated by human flesh, left the mangled victims to be finished off with [[bayonet]] and [[poniard]]?}}


Philippe Girard sieht die Haitianische Revolution und die wiedereinführung der Sklaverei als Grund für das Massaker.
===Haitian Revolution===
{{Further|Haitian Revolution}}


Im 19. Jahrhundert war das Massaker in den Vereiniten Staaten durchaus bekannt. Viele flüchteten vor den Greueltaten aus Saint Domingue in die Vereinigten Staaten, und liessen sich In [[New Orleans]], [[Charleston (South Carolina)|Charleston]], [[New York City|New York]], [[Baltimore]] und anderen Städten an der Westküste nieder. Diese Ereignisse schürten auch Ängste, es könnte in den [[Südstaaten]] zu Aufständen kommen. Die öffentlche Meinung in bezug auf die Frage einer möglichen Abschaffung der Sklaverei wurde polarisiert.<ref name="Marcotte p171">{{Cite book |last=Marcotte |first=Frank B. |title=Six days in April : Lincoln and the Union in peril |publisher=Algora Publishing |location=New York |date=2005 |page=171 |isbn=0-8758-6313-2}}</ref>
[[File:Incendie de la Plaine du Cap. - Massacre des Blancs par les Noirs. FRANCE MILITAIRE. - Martinet del. - Masson Sculp - 33.jpg|thumb|250px|"Burning of the Plaine du Cap - Massacre of whites by the blacks." On August 22, 1791, slaves set fire to plantations, torched cities and massacred the white population.]]


== Einzelnachweise ==
In 1791, a man of Jamaican origin named [[Dutty Boukman]] became the leader of the enslaved Africans held on a large plantation in [[Cap-Français]].<ref name="Cheuse 2002">{{cite book |last=Cheuse |first=Alan |author-link=Alan Cheuse |title=Listening to the Page: Adventures in Reading and Writing |url=https://archive.org/details/listeningtopagea00cheu/page/58/mode/1up?view=theater |url-access=registration |date=2002 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-12271-9 |pages=58–59}}</ref> In the wake of the [[French Revolution]], he planned to massacre all the French living in Cap-Français.<ref name="Cheuse 2002"/> On 22 August 1791, the enslaved Africans descended on Le Cap, where they destroyed the plantations and executed all the French who lived in the region.<ref name="Cheuse 2002"/> King [[Louis XVI]] was accused of indifference to the massacre, while the slaves seemed to think the king was on their side.<ref name="Douthwaite 2012">{{cite book |first=Julia V. |last=Douthwaite |title=The Frankenstein of 1790 and Other Lost Chapters from Revolutionary France |date=2012 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-16058-0 |page=110}}</ref> In July 1793, the French in [[Les Cayes]] were massacred.<ref name="Geggus 1989">{{cite book |last=Geggus |first=David |editor-first1=Franklin W. |editor-last1=Knight |editor-first2=Colin A. |editor-last2=Palmer |title=The Modern Caribbean |year=1989 |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |isbn=978-0-8078-4240-9 |page=32 |chapter=The Haitian Revolution |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/moderncaribbean0000unse/page/32/mode/1up?view=theater |chapter-url-access=registration}}</ref>

Despite the French proclamation of emancipation, the blacks sided with the Spanish who came to occupy the region.<ref name="Popkin2010B">{{cite book |first=Jeremy D. |last=Popkin |title=Facing Racial Revolution: Eyewitness Accounts of the Haitian Insurrection |date=2007 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-67582-4 |page=252}}</ref> In July 1794, Spanish forces stood by while the black troops of [[Jean-François Papillon|Jean-François]] massacred the French whites in [[Fort-Liberté|Fort-Dauphin]].<ref name="Popkin2010B"/>

Philippe Girard writes that [[genocide]] was openly considered as a strategy by both sides in the conflict.{{sfnp|Girard|2005a|loc=abstract}} White forces sent by [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] committed massacres but were defeated before they could accomplish genocide, while an army under [[Jean-Jacques Dessalines]], composed mainly of former slaves, was able to wipe out the white Haitian population.{{sfnp|Girard|2005a|loc=abstract}} Girard describes five main factors leading to the massacre, which he describes as a genocide: (1) Haitian soldiers were influenced by the French Revolution to justify murder and large-scale massacres on ideological grounds; (2) economic interests motivated French planters to want to quell the uprising, as well as influencing former slaves to want to kill the planters and take ownership of the plantations; (3) a slave revolt had been ongoing for more than a decade, and was itself a reaction to a century of brutal colonial rule, making violent death commonplace and therefore easier to accept; (4) the massacre was a form of [[Class conflict|class warfare]] in which former slaves were able to take revenge against their former masters; and (5) the last stages of the war became a racial conflict pitting whites against blacks and [[mulatto]]es, in which racial hatred, dehumanization, and conspiracy theories all facilitated [[genocide]].{{sfnp|Girard|2005a|loc=abstract}}

Dessalines came to power after France's defeat and subsequent evacuation from what was previously known as [[Saint-Domingue]]. In November 1803, three days after [[Donatien-Marie-Joseph de Vimeur, vicomte de Rochambeau|Rochambeau]]'s forces surrendered, Dessalines ordered the execution of 800 French soldiers who had been left behind due to illness during the evacuation.{{sfnp|Popkin|2012|p=137}}{{sfnp|Girard|2011|p=319}} He did guarantee the safety of the remaining white civilian population.{{sfnp|Dayan|1998}}{{page needed|date=February 2012}}{{sfnp|Shen|2008}} However, Jeremy Popkin writes that statements by Dessalines such as "There are still French on the island, and still you considered yourselves free," spoke of a hostile attitude toward the remaining white minority.{{sfnp|Popkin|2012|p=137}}

Rumors about the white population suggested that they would try to leave the country to convince foreign powers to invade and reintroduce slavery. Discussions between Dessalines and his advisers openly suggested that the white population should be put to death for the sake of national security. Whites trying to leave Haiti were prevented from doing so.{{sfnp|Girard|2011|p=319}}

On 1 January 1804, Dessalines proclaimed Haiti an independent nation.{{sfnp|Dayan|1998|pp=3–4}} Mid-February, Dessalines told some cities (Léogâne, Jacmel, Les Cayes) to prepare for mass massacres.{{sfnp|Girard|2011|p=319}} On 22 February 1804, he signed a decree ordering that all [[White people|whites]] in all cities should be put to death.<ref>Blancpain 2001, p. 7.</ref> The weapons used should be silent weapons such as knives and bayonets rather than gunfire, so that the killing could be done more quietly, and avoid warning intended victims by the sound of gunfire and thereby giving them the opportunity to escape.{{sfnp|Dayan|1998|p=4}}

==Massacre==
[[File:Manuel Lopez Lopez Iodibo - Desalines - Huyes del valor frances, pero matando blancos.jpg|thumb|250px|An 1806 engraving of [[Jean-Jacques Dessalines]]. It depicts the general, sword raised in one arm, while the other holds the severed head of a white woman.]]
During February and March, Dessalines traveled among the cities of Haiti to assure himself that his orders were carried out. Despite his orders, the massacres were often not carried out until he visited the cities in person.{{sfnp|Popkin|2012|p=137}}

The course of the massacre showed an almost identical pattern in every city he visited. Before his arrival, there were only a few killings, despite his orders.{{sfnp|Girard|2011|pp=321–322}} When Dessalines arrived, he first spoke about the atrocities committed by former white authorities, such as [[Donatien-Marie-Joseph de Vimeur, vicomte de Rochambeau|Rochambeau]] and [[Charles Leclerc (general, born 1772)|Leclerc]], after which he demanded that his orders about mass killings of the area's white population should be put into effect. Reportedly, he ordered the unwilling to take part in the killings, especially men of [[mixed race]], so that the blame should not be placed solely on the black population.{{sfnp|Dayan|1998|p={{page needed|date=February 2012}}}}{{sfnp|Girard|2011|p=321}} Mass killings took place on the streets and on places outside the cities.

In [[Port-au-Prince]], only a few killings had occurred in the city despite the orders. After Dessalines arrived on 18 March, the number of killings escalated. According to a merchant captain, about 800 people were killed in the city, while about 50 survived.{{sfnp|Girard|2011|p=321}} On 18 April 1804, Dessalines arrived at [[Cap-Haïtien]]. Only a handful of killings had taken place there before his arrival, but the killings escalated to a massacre on the streets and outside the city after his arrival. Sources created at the time stated that 3,000 people were killed in Cap-Haïtien; Philippe Girard writes that this figure was unrealistic as in the post-evacuation of the French people the settlement had only 1,700 white people.{{sfnp|Girard|2011|p=321}}

Before his departure from a city, Dessalines would proclaim an amnesty for all the whites who had survived in hiding during the massacre. When these people left their hiding place however, most (French) were killed as well.{{sfnp|Girard|2011|p=321}} Many{{how many|date=February 2018}} <!-- how many? -->whites were, however, hidden and smuggled out to sea by foreigners.{{sfnp|Girard|2011|p=321}} However, there were notable exceptions to the ordered killings. A contingent of [[Polish Legions (Napoleonic period)|Polish]] defectors were given amnesty and granted Haitian citizenship for their renouncement of French allegiance and support of Haitian independence. Dessalines referred to the Poles as ''"the White Negroes of Europe"'', as an expression of his solidarity and gratitude.<ref>{{cite book |first=Susan |last=Buck-Morss |title=Hegel, Haiti, and Universal History |year=2009 |publisher=University of Pittsburgh Press |isbn=978-0-8229-7334-8 |pages=75 ff}}</ref>

The French, who were one of the two main targets of the 1804 Haiti Massacre that Dessalines and his company specifically declared a massacre on<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Girard |first=Philippe R. |date=2005-06-01 |title=Caribbean genocide: racial war in Haiti, 1802–4 |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00313220500106196 |journal=Patterns of Prejudice |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=138–161 |doi=10.1080/00313220500106196 |s2cid=145204936 |issn=0031-322X}}</ref> made up the overwhelming majority of the white population. Dessalines' secretary Louis Boisrond-Tonnerre complained that the declaration of independence was not aggressive enough, saying that "...we should have the skin of a white man for parchment, his skull for an inkwell, his blood for ink, and a bayonet for a pen!",<ref name=":1" /> Dessalines later himself specifically pledged to "kill every Frenchman who soils the land of freedom with his sacrilegious presence."<ref name=":1" />

The people chosen to be killed were targeted primarily based on skin color rather than political affiliation.<ref name=":1" /> The white victims were almost entirely French, commensurate with their share in the white population of Haiti. About his targets of the massacre, Dessalines' slogan exemplified his mission to eradicate the white population with the saying "Break the eggs, take out the [sic] yoke [a pun on the word 'yellow' which means both yoke and mulatto] and eat the white."<ref name=":1" /> Upper class whites were not the only target; any white of any socioeconomic status was also to be killed, including the urban poor known as ''petits blancs''.<ref name=":1" /> During the massacre, stabbing, beheading, and disemboweling were common.<ref name="Plunging Into Haiti: Clinton, Aristide, and the Defeat of Diplomacy - Ralph Pezzullo - Google Books">{{Cite book |last=Pezzullo |first=Ralph |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ex-McfiTKWgC |title=Plunging Into Haiti: Clinton, Aristide, and the Defeat of Diplomacy |date=2006 |publisher=Univ. Press of Mississippi |isbn=978-1-60473-534-5 |language=en}}</ref>

In parallel to the killings, plundering and [[rape]] also occurred. As elsewhere, the majority of the women were initially not killed, and the soldiers were reportedly somewhat hesitant to do so. Dessalines's advisers, however, pointed out that the white Haitians would not disappear if the women were left to give birth to white men, and after this, Dessalines ordered that the women should be killed as well, with the exception of those who agreed to marry non-white men.{{sfnp|Girard|2011|pp=321–322}}

One of the most notorious of the massacre participants was Jean Zombi, a mulatto resident of Port-au-Prince who was known for his brutality. One account describes how Zombi stopped a white man on the street, stripped him naked, and took him to the stair of the Presidential Palace, where he killed him with a dagger. Dessalines was reportedly among the spectators; he was said to be "horrified" by the episode.{{sfnp|Dayan|1998|p=36}} In [[Haitian Vodou]] tradition, the figure of Jean Zombi has become a prototype for the [[zombie]].{{sfnp|Dayan|1998|pp=35–38}}{{contradict inline|Zombie|date=February 2023}}

At the conclusion of the slaughter, Dessalines rejoiced, saying "I will go to my grave happy. We have avenged our brothers. Haiti has become a blood-red spot on the face of the globe!"<ref name="Plunging Into Haiti: Clinton, Aristide, and the Defeat of Diplomacy - Ralph Pezzullo - Google Books" />

==Aftermath==
===Effects in Haiti===
By the end of April 1804, some 3,000 to 5,000 people had been killed{{sfnp|Girard|2011|p=322}} and the white Haitians were practically eradicated, excluding a select group of whites who were given amnesty. Those spared consisted of the [[Polish_Haitians#History|Polish ex-soldiers]] who were given Haitian citizenship for helping black Haitians in fights against white colonialists; a small group of German colonists invited to the [[Nord-Ouest (department)|north-west region]] before the revolution; and a group of medical doctors and professionals.{{sfnp|Popkin|2012|p=137}} Reportedly, also people with connections to officers in the Haitian army were spared, as well as the women who agreed to marry non-white men.{{sfnp|Girard|2011|p=322}}

Dessalines did not try to hide the massacre from the world. In an official proclamation of 8 April 1804, he stated, "We have given these true cannibals war for war, crime for crime, outrage for outrage. Yes, I have saved my country, I have avenged [[Americas|America]]."{{sfnp|Popkin|2012|p=137}} He referred to the massacre as an act of national authority. Dessalines regarded the elimination of the white Haitians an act of political necessity, as they were regarded as a threat to the peace between the black and the free people of color. It was also regarded as a necessary act of vengeance.{{sfnp|Girard|2011|p=322}} Dessalines' secretary [[Boisrond-Tonnerre]] stated, "For our declaration of independence, we should have the skin of a white man for parchment, his skull for an inkwell, his blood for ink, and a bayonet for a pen!"<ref name="haiti">[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ht0019) Independent Haiti], [[Library of Congress Country Studies]].</ref>

Dessalines was eager to assure that Haiti was not a threat to other nations. He directed efforts to establish friendly relations also to nations where slavery was still allowed.{{sfnp|Girard|2011|p=326}}

In the 1805 constitution, all citizens were defined as "black".{{sfnp|Girard|2011|p=325}} The constitution also banned white men from owning land, except for people already born or born in the future to white women who were naturalized as Haitian citizens and the Germans and Poles who got Haitian citizenship.{{sfnp|Girard|2011|p=322}}{{sfnp|1805 Constitution of Haiti}} The massacre had a long-lasting effect on the view of the [[Haitian Revolution]]. It helped to create a legacy of racial hostility in Haitian society.{{sfnp|Girard|2011|p=325}}

Girard writes in his book ''Paradise Lost'': "Despite all of Dessalines' efforts at rationalization, the massacres were as inexcusable as they were foolish."{{sfnp|Girard|2005b|p=56}} Trinidadian historian [[C. L. R. James]] concurred with this view in his breakthrough work ''[[The Black Jacobins]]'', writing that "the unfortunate country... was ruined economically, its population lacking in social culture, [and] had its difficulties doubled by this massacre". James wrote that the massacre was "not policy but revenge, and revenge has no place in politics".<ref name="James p373">{{cite book |last1=James |first1=C. L. R. |title=The Black Jacobins; Toussaint L'Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution |date=1989 |orig-date=First published 1938 |publisher=Vintage Books |location=New York |pages=373–374 |isbn=0-679-72467-2 |edition=2nd |url=https://archive.org/details/blackjacobinstou00jame/page/373/mode/1up?view=theater |url-access=registration}}</ref>

Philippe Girard writes "when the genocide was over, Haiti's white population was virtually non-existent."{{sfnp|Girard|2005a}}{{Page needed|date=June 2022}} Citing Girard, Nicholas Robins, and [[Adam Jones (Canadian scholar)|Adam Jones]] describe the massacre as a "genocide of the [[Subaltern (postcolonialism)|subaltern]]" in which a previously disadvantaged group used a genocide to destroy their previous oppressors.<ref name="Robins & Jones">{{cite book |editor1-last=Robins |editor1-first=Nicholas A. |editor2-first=Adam |editor2-last=Jones |title=Genocides by the Oppressed: Subaltern Genocide in Theory and Practice |publisher=Indiana University Press |date=2009 |isbn=978-0-2532-2077-6 |page=3 |quote=The Great Rebellion and the Haitian slave uprising are two examples of what we refer to as 'subaltern genocide': cases in which subaltern actors—those objectively oppressed and disempowered—adopt genocidal strategies to vanquish their oppressors.}} {{block indent|left=1|See also: {{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Adam |chapter=Subaltern genocide: Genocides by the oppressed |title=The Scourge of Genocide: Essays and Reflections |publisher=Routledge |date=2013 |isbn=978-1-1350-4715-3 |page=169 |others=With Nicholas Robins}} }}</ref>

===Effect on American society===
{{Further|Haitianism|Abolitionism in the United States}}

At the time of the [[American Civil War]], a major pretext for [[Southern United States|Southern whites]], most of whom did not own slaves, to support slave owners (and ultimately fight for the [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]]) was fear of a genocide similar to the Haitian massacre of 1804.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Summers |first=Mark Wahlgren |title=The Ordeal of the Reunion: A New History of Reconstruction |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-4696-1758-9 |series=Littlefield History of the Civil War Era |pages=12 |language=en-us}}</ref> The perceived failure of abolition in Haiti and Jamaica were explicitly referred to in Confederate discourse as a reason for secession.<ref name="McCurry p12">{{cite book |last1=McCurry |first1=Stephanie |title=Confederate Reckoning: Power and Politics in the Civil War South |date=2010 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Mass. |isbn=978-0-6740-4589-7 |pages=12–13}}</ref> The slave revolt was a prominent theme in the discourse of Southern political leaders and had influenced U.S. public opinion since the events took place. Historian Kevin Julius writes:

{{Quote|As abolitionists loudly proclaimed that "[[All men are created equal]]", echoes of armed slave insurrections and racial genocide sounded in Southern ears. Much of their resentment towards the abolitionists can be seen as a reaction to the events in Haiti.<ref name="Julius 2004"/>}}

In the run-up to the [[1860 United States presidential election|U.S. presidential election of 1860]], [[Roger B. Taney]], [[Chief Justice of the United States|Chief Justice]] of the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]], wrote "I remember the horrors of St. Domingo" and said that the election "will determine whether anything like this is to be visited upon our own southern countrymen."<ref name="Marcotte p171"/>

Abolitionists recognized the strength of this argument on public opinion in both the North and South. In correspondence to the ''New York Times'' in September 1861 (during the war), an abolitionist named J. B. Lyon addressed this as a prominent argument of his opponents:

{{Quote|We don't know any better than to imagine that emancipation would result in the utter extinction of civilization in the South, because the slave-holders, and those in their interest, have persistently told us ... and they always instance the 'horrors of St. Domingo.'<ref name="Lyon 1861">{{cite news |last1=Lyon |first1=J. B. |title=What Shall be Done with the Slaves? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1861/09/06/archives/what-shall-be-done-with-the-slaves.html |work=The New York Times |date=6 September 1861 |issn=0362-4331 |page=2 |url-access=limited}}</ref>}}

Lyon argued, however, that the abolition of slavery in the various Caribbean colonies of the European empires before the 1860s showed that an end to slavery could be achieved peacefully.

==See also==
* [[History of Haiti]]
* [[Parsley massacre]]
* [[List of massacres in Haiti]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|30em}}
{{reflist|30em}}


==References==
== References ==
* {{cite book |first=Joan |last=Dayan |year=1998 |title=Haiti, History, and the Gods |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-21368-5}}
* {{cite journal |last=Girard |first=Philippe |title=Caribbean genocide: racial war in Haiti, 1802–4 |journal=[[Patterns of Prejudice]] |date=2005a |volume=39 |issue=2: Colonial Genocide |pages=138–161 |doi=10.1080/00313220500106196 |s2cid=145204936}} {{block indent|left=1|Reprinted in: {{Cite book |editor1-last=Moses |editor1-first=Dirk |editor2-last=Stone |editor2-first=Dan |title=Colonialism and Genocide. |date=2013 |publisher=Taylor and Francis |isbn=978-1-317-99753-5 |location=Hoboken |pages=42–65}} }}
* {{cite book |last1=Girard |first1=Philippe R. |title=Paradise Lost: Haiti's Tumultuous Journey from Pearl of the Caribbean to Third World Hot Spot |date=2005b |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-4039-8031-1 |page=56 |doi=10.1057/9781403980311_4 |chapter=Missed Opportunities: Haiti after Independence (1804–1915)}}
* {{cite book |first=Philippe R. |last=Girard |year=2011 |title=The Slaves Who Defeated Napoleon: Toussaint Louverture and the Haitian War of Independence 1801–1804 |location=Tuscaloosa, Alabama |publisher=The University of Alabama Press |isbn=978-0-8173-1732-4}}
* {{cite book |first=Jeremy D. |last=Popkin |year=2012 |title=A Concise History of the Haitian Revolution |location=Chicester, West Sussex |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |isbn=978-1-4051-9820-2}}
* {{cite web |first=Kona |last=Shen |url=http://library.brown.edu/haitihistory/11.html |work=History of Haiti, 1492–1805 |title=Haitian Independence, 1804–1805 |publisher=Brown University, Department of Africana Studies |date=December 9, 2008 |access-date=1 February 2012}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.webster.edu/~corbetre/haiti/history/earlyhaiti/1805-const.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051228150910/http://www.webster.edu/~corbetre/haiti/history/earlyhaiti/1805-const.htm |archive-date=28 December 2005 |title=The 1805 Constitution of Haiti |via=Webster University |date=10 December 2011 |ref={{SfnRef|1805 Constitution of Haiti}} |url-status=dead |postscript=. (Transcribed by Bob Corbett. This document is an English translation published in the ''New York Evening Post'' on July 15, 1805. This version does not include Articles 40–44. Corbett states that [[Henri Christophe]], due to his affinity for English and his involvement with the publication, may have been the translator.)}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite journal |author=Popkin, Jeremy D. |title=A Survivor of Dessalines's Massacres in 1804 |journal=Facing Racial Revolution: Eyewitness Accounts of the Haitian Insurrection |year=2008 |doi=10.7208/chicago/9780226675855.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-226-67583-1}}
* {{cite web |title=A Brief History of Dessalines from 1825 Missionary Journal |url=http://faculty.webster.edu/corbetre/haiti/history/earlyhaiti/dessalines.htm |website=faculty.webster.edu}}


* {{Cite book |last=Dayan |first=Joan |title=Haiti, History, and the Gods |publisher=University of California Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-520-21368-5}}
{{coord missing|Haiti}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Girard |first=Philippe |title=Caribbean genocide: racial war in Haiti, 1802–4 |work=[[Patterns of Prejudice]] |issue=2: Colonial Genocide |volume=39 |pages=138–161 |date=2005a |doi=10.1080/00313220500106196}}  
{{Haitian Revolution}}
* {{Cite book |last=Girard |first=Philippe R. |title=Paradise Lost: Haiti's Tumultuous Journey from Pearl of the Caribbean to Third World Hot Spot |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |date=2005b |chapter=Missed Opportunities: Haiti after Independence (1804–1915) |page=56 |isbn=978-1-4039-8031-1 |doi=10.1057/9781403980311_4}}
{{Haiti topics}}
* {{Cite book |last=Girard |first=Philippe R. |title=The Slaves Who Defeated Napoleon: Toussaint Louverture and the Haitian War of Independence 1801–1804 |publisher=The University of Alabama Press |location=Tuscaloosa, Alabama |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-8173-1732-4}}
* {{Cite book |last=Popkin |first=Jeremy D. |title=A Concise History of the Haitian Revolution |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |location=Chicester, West Sussex |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-4051-9820-2}}
* {{Cite web |last=Shen |first=Kona |title=Haitian Independence, 1804–1805 |date=December 9, 2008 |publisher=Brown University, Department of Africana Studies |url=http://library.brown.edu/haitihistory/11.html |website=History of Haiti, 1492–1805 |access-date=1 February 2012}}
* {{Cite web |title=The 1805 Constitution of Haiti |date=10 December 2011 |via=Webster University |url=http://www.webster.edu/~corbetre/haiti/history/earlyhaiti/1805-const.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051228150910/http://www.webster.edu/~corbetre/haiti/history/earlyhaiti/1805-const.htm |archive-date=28 December 2005 |url-status=dead |postscript=. (Transcribed by Bob Corbett. This document is an English translation published in the ''New York Evening Post'' on July 15, 1805. This version does not include Articles 40–44. Corbett states that [[Henri Christophe]], due to his affinity for English and his involvement with the publication, may have been the translator.)}}


* {{Cite journal |last=Popkin, Jeremy D. |title=A Survivor of Dessalines's Massacres in 1804 |work=Facing Racial Revolution: Eyewitness Accounts of the Haitian Insurrection |year=2008 |doi=10.7208/chicago/9780226675855.001.0001}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Haiti massacre}}
* {{Cite web |title=A Brief History of Dessalines from 1825 Missionary Journal |url=http://faculty.webster.edu/corbetre/haiti/history/earlyhaiti/dessalines.htm |website=faculty.webster.edu}}
[[Category:Haitian Revolution]]
[[Kategorie:Konflikt 1804]]
[[Category:First Empire of Haiti]]
[[Category:Massacres in 1804]]
[[Category:Massacres in Haiti]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1804]]
[[Category:Ethnic cleansing in North America]]
[[Category:1804 in Haiti]]
[[Category:Genocides in North America]]
[[Category:February 1804 events]]
[[Category:March 1804 events]]
[[Category:April 1804 events]]
[[Category:Genocidal massacres]]
[[Category:Racially motivated violence against white Europeans]]
[[Category:1804 murders in North America]]
[[Category:Francophobia in North America]]
[[Category:Discrimination in Haiti]]

Version vom 6. Januar 2024, 22:01 Uhr

 

Jean-Jacques Dessalines führte die französische Kolonie Sainte Domingue in the Unabhängigkeit. Nach einigen erfolgreichen Kämpfen errange er Siege über die Truppen Napoleons. Das Land wurde 1804 als Haiti unabhängig, und Dessalines wurde der erste Präsident. Im Rahmen dieser Ereignisse töteten Haitianische Truppen im Jahr 1804 Europäer. Dabei wurde sehr selektiv gegen Franzosen vorgegangen.[1][2] Diese Ereignisse werden heute Massaker von Haiti von 1804, oder Haitianischer Genozid genannt.[3][4][5] Im Rahmen der Revolution von Haiti war die napoleonische Armee 1803 geschlagen worden. Die Haitianische Unabhängigkeitserklärung erfolgte am 1 January 1804.[6] In der Zeit von Februar 1804 bis zum 22. April zogen Truppen von Haus zu Haus. Sie folterten und töteten ganze Familien.[7] Insgesammt fielen ihnen zwischwen 3.000 und 5.000 Personen zum Ofper.[7]


Polnische Legionnäre, welche die Seiten gewechelt hatten und die versklavten Afrikaner unterstützten, sowie Deutsche Einwanderer, welche sich nicht am Sklavenhandel beteiligten, wurden systematisch verschont. Sie erhielten stattdessen das Bürgerrecht, und wurden als Noir, also als Mitglied der neuen herrschenden Klasse, eingestuft.

Nicholas Robins, Adam Jones, und Dirk Moses vertreten die Ansicht, diese Exekutionen seinen ein "Gezid der Subalternität", in welchem eine unterdrückte Gruppe Elemente des Genozids verwendet, um ihre Unterdrücker zu zerstören.[8]

Philippe Girard sieht die Haitianische Revolution und die wiedereinführung der Sklaverei als Grund für das Massaker.

Im 19. Jahrhundert war das Massaker in den Vereiniten Staaten durchaus bekannt. Viele flüchteten vor den Greueltaten aus Saint Domingue in die Vereinigten Staaten, und liessen sich In New Orleans, Charleston, New York, Baltimore und anderen Städten an der Westküste nieder. Diese Ereignisse schürten auch Ängste, es könnte in den Südstaaten zu Aufständen kommen. Die öffentlche Meinung in bezug auf die Frage einer möglichen Abschaffung der Sklaverei wurde polarisiert.[9]

Einzelnachweise

Vorlage:Reflist

References

  • Joan Dayan: Haiti, History, and the Gods. University of California Press, 1998, ISBN 978-0-520-21368-5.
  • Philippe Girard: Caribbean genocide: racial war in Haiti, 1802–4. In: Patterns of Prejudice. 39. Jahrgang, 2: Colonial Genocide, 2005, S. 138–161, doi:10.1080/00313220500106196.  
  • Philippe R. Girard: Paradise Lost: Haiti's Tumultuous Journey from Pearl of the Caribbean to Third World Hot Spot. Palgrave Macmillan, 2005, ISBN 978-1-4039-8031-1, Missed Opportunities: Haiti after Independence (1804–1915), S. 56, doi:10.1057/9781403980311_4.
  • Philippe R. Girard: The Slaves Who Defeated Napoleon: Toussaint Louverture and the Haitian War of Independence 1801–1804. The University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa, Alabama 2011, ISBN 978-0-8173-1732-4.
  • Jeremy D. Popkin: A Concise History of the Haitian Revolution. Wiley-Blackwell, Chicester, West Sussex 2012, ISBN 978-1-4051-9820-2.
  • Kona Shen: Haitian Independence, 1804–1805. In: History of Haiti, 1492–1805. Brown University, Department of Africana Studies, 9. Dezember 2008, abgerufen am 1. Februar 2012.
  • The 1805 Constitution of Haiti. via Webster University, 10. Dezember 2011, archiviert vom Original am 28. Dezember 2005;.
  1. ↑ J. A. Rogers: World's Great Men of Color, Volume II. Simon and Schuster, 2010, ISBN 978-1-4516-0307-1 (englisch, google.com).
  2. ↑ Riccardo Orizio: Lost White Tribes: The End of Privilege and the Last Colonials in Sri Lanka, Jamaica, Brazil, Haiti, Namibia, and Guadeloupe. Simon and Schuster, 2001, ISBN 978-0-7432-1197-0 (englisch, google.com).
  3. ↑ Philippe R. Girard: Caribbean genocide: racial war in Haiti, 1802–4. In: Patterns of Prejudice. 39. Jahrgang, Nr. 2, 2005, ISSN 0031-322X, S. 138–161, doi:10.1080/00313220500106196 (doi.org): „The Haitian genocide and its historical counterparts [...] The 1804 Haitian genocide“
  4. ↑ Dirk A. Moses, Dan Stone: Colonialism and Genocide. Routledge, 2013, ISBN 978-1-317-99753-5, S. 63 (englisch, google.com).
  5. ↑ James Forde: The Early Haitian State and the Question of Political Legitimacy: American and British Representations of Haiti, 1804—1824. Springer, 2020, ISBN 978-3-03052608-5, S. 40 (englisch, google.com).
  6. ↑ Claudia Sutherland: Haitian Revolution (1791-1804). In: Blackpast.org. 16. Juli 2007, abgerufen am 17. Juni 2022.
  7. ↑ a b Mark Danner: Stripping Bare the Body: Politics, Violence, War. Nation Books, New York 2009, ISBN 978-1-56858-413-3, S. 107.
  8. ↑ Steffen Klävers: Decolonizing Auschwitz?: Komparativ-postkoloniale Ansätze in der Holocaustforschung. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG, 2019, ISBN 978-3-11-060041-4, S. 110.
  9. ↑ Frank B. Marcotte: Six days in April : Lincoln and the Union in peril. Algora Publishing, New York 2005, ISBN 0-87586-313-2, S. 171.
Abgerufen von „https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Haitianisches_Massaker_von_1804&oldid=240916329“