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Zeile 1.233: Zeile 1.233:
| volume = Bulletin 1053
| volume = Bulletin 1053
| at = 6 plates, 159 p. text
| at = 6 plates, 159 p. text
}}
*{{citation
| ref = CITEREFSnelsonEt2007
| last1 = Snelson | first1 = C. M.
| last2 = Brocher | first2 = T. M.
| last3 = Miller | first3 = K. C.
| last4 = Pratt | first4 = T. L.
| last5 = Tréhu | first5 = A. M.
| date = October 2007
| title = Seismic Amplification within the Seattle Basin, Washington State: Insights from SHIPS Seismic Tomography Experiments
| journal = Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America
| volume = 97
| issue = 5
| pages = 1432–1448
| doi = 10.1785/0120050204
| url = http://mahabghodss.net/NewBooks/www/web/digital/nashrieh/bssa/2007/Oct.%202007%20,%20Vol.%2097%20,%20Issue%205/5/1432.pdf
}}
}}
*{{Citation
*{{Citation

Version vom 24. Januar 2011, 00:05 Uhr

The principal Puget Sound faults (approximate location of known extents) and other selected peripheral and minor faults. Southern tip of Vancouver Island and San Juan Islands at top left (faults not shown), Olympic Mountains at center left, Mount Rainer at lower right (near WRZ). Faults north to south: Devils Mountain, Strawberry Point, Utsalady Point, Little River, Sequim, Southern Whidbey Island Fault, Rattlesnake Mountain Fault Zone, Lofall, Canyon River, Frigid Creek, Saddle Mountain faults, Hood Canal, Seattle Fault Zone, Tahuya Fault, Tacoma Fault Zone, East Passage, White River (extends east), Olympia Structure, Scammon Creek, Doty (extends west), Western Rainier Zone, Saint Helens Zone (extends south). Also shown: part of the Olympic-Wallowa Lineament.

This article reviews the principal Puget Sound faults: the known seismogenic (earthquake-causing) geologic faults in the heavily populated Puget Sound region (Puget Lowland) of Washington State. This regional system of interrelated faults includes (from north to south, see map) the:

General background

Earthquake sources and hazard

The Puget Sound region (Puget Lowland[1]) of western Washington contains the bulk of the population and economic assets of the state, and carries seven percent of the international trade of the United States.[2] All this is at risk of earthquakes from three sources:[3]

  • Intraslab (Benioff zone) earthquakes, such as the 2001 M 6.7 Nisqually earthquake, caused by slippage or fracturing on a small part of the subducting plate at a depth of around 50 km.
  • Relatively shallow crustal earthquakes, generally less than 25 km (about 15 miles) deep, caused by stresses and faulting in the near-surface crustal structures. The energy released depends on the length of the fault; the faults here are believed capable of generating earthquakes as great as M 6 or 7.
Concentration of mid-crustal (10—20 km deep) seismicity in the Puget Lowland. (USGS OFR 99-311)

While the great subduction events are large and release much energy (around magnitude 9), that energy is spread over a large area, and largely centered near the coast. The energy of the somewhat smaller Benioff earthquakes is likewise diluted over a relatively large area. The largest intra-crustal earthquakes have about the same total energy (which is about one-hundredth of a subduction event), but in being closer to the surface will have more powerful shaking, and therefore more damage.

One study of seismic vulnerability of bridges in the Seattle – Tacoma area[4] estimated that an M 7 earthquake on the Seattle or Tacoma faults would cause nearly as much damage as a M 9 subduction earthquake. Because the Seattle and Tacoma faults run directly under the biggest concentration of population and development in the region, more damage would be expected, but all of the faults reviewed here may be capable of causing severe damage locally, and disrupting the regional transportation infrastructure, including highways, railways, and pipelines. (Links with more information on various hazards can be found at Seattle Fault.)

The Puget Sound region is not just potentially seismic, it is actively seismic. Mapping from the Pacific Northwest Seismic Network shows that the bulk of the earthquakes in western Washington are concentrated in four places: in two narrow zones under Mt. Saint Helens and Mt. Rainier, along the DDMFZ, and under Puget Sound between Olympia and approximately the Southern Whidbey Island Fault.[5] The southern limit nearly matches the southern limit of the glaciation; possibly the seismicity reflects rebound of the upper crust after being stressed by the weight of the glacial ice.

Discovery

Thick glacial and other deposits, heavy vegetation, urban development, and a topography of sharp relief and rapid erosion obscures faults in this region, and has hindered their discovery.[6] The first definite indications of most of these faults came from gravitational mapping in 1965,[7] and their likely existence noted on mapping in 1980 and 1985.[8] As of 1985 only the Saddle Mountain Faults had been shown to be active in the past 10,000 years.[9] Not until 1992 was the first of the lowland faults, the Seattle Fault, confirmed to be an actual fault with Holocene (since the last ice age) activity, and the barest minimum of its history established.[10]

Discovery of faults has been greatly facilitated with the development of LIDAR, a technique that can generally penetrate forest canopy and vegetation to image the actual ground surface with an unprecedented accuracy of approximately one foot (30 cm). An informal consortium of regional agencies has coordinated LIDAR mapping of much of the central Puget Lowland, which has led to discovery of numerous fault scarps which are then investigated by trenching (paleoseismology).[11] Marine seismic reflection surveys on Puget Sound where it cuts across the various faults have provided cross-sectional views of the structure of some of these faults, and an intense, wide-area combined on-shore/off-shore study in 1998 (Seismic Hazards Investigation in Puget Sound, or SHIPS)[12] resulted in a three-dimensional model of much of the subsurface geometry. Aeromagnetic surveys,[13] seismic tomography,[14] and other studies have also contributed to locating and understanding these faults.

Geological setting

Simplified view of tectonic forces affecting Washington. The Olympic Mountains (the lobe of grey "accretionary complex" rock sliding past the south end of Vancouver Island), having failed to subduct, are being pressed against the basement rock ("fixed block") of the North Cascades, which has been accreted on to the North American craton. This is blocking a stream of terranes that have been flowing northward in the trough above the subduction zone. As a result Washington is crumpling in a series of folds (dotted lines show synclines and anticlines) and faults, and Oregon is rotating in a manner similar to a jack-knifing trailer. Folding has exposed patches of Crescent Formation (Siletz) basalt ("mafic crust", black). (USGS[15])

The ultimate driver of the stresses that cause earthquakes are the motions of the tectonic plates: material from the Earth's mantle rises at spreading centers, and moves out as plates of oceanic crust which eventually are subducted under the more buoyant plates of continental crust. Western Washington lies over the Cascadia subduction zone, where the Juan de Fuca Plate is subducting towards the east (see diagram, right). This is being obliquely overridden by the North American plate coming out of the northeast, which has formed a bend in the subducting plate and in the forearc basin above it. This bend has distorted the subducting slab into an arch that has lifted the Olympic Mountains and prevented them from subducting.[16] For the past 50 million years or so (since the early Eocene epoch) these have been thrust by subduction up against the North Cascades ("fixed block" in the diagram), which sit on the North American Plate. This forms a pocket or trough – what one local geologist calls the "big hole between the mountains"[17] – between the Cascades on the east and the Olympic Mountains and Willapa Hills on the west. This pocket is catching a stream of terranes (crustal blocks about 20 to 30 km thick[18]) which the Pacific plate is pushing up the western edge of North America, and in the process imparting a bit of clockwise rotation to southwestern Washington and most of Oregon; the result has been characterized as a train wreck.[19] These terranes were covered by the basalts of the Crescent Formation (part of the Siletz River Volcanics). Folding and faulting has exposed these basalts in some places (black areas in diagram); the intervening basins have been filled by various sedimentary formations, some of which have been subsequently uplifted. Glacially deposited and shaped fill covers most of the lower elevations of Puget Sound. This is the Puget Lowland. The principal effects of this complex interplay of forces on the near-surface crust underlying the Puget Lowland are:

  • The basement rock of the Crescent Formation is being forced up on the southern, eastern, and northern flanks of the Olympic Mountains, and at various folds (wrinkles).
  • Some of the upper-crustal formations (such as the Western and Eastern Melange Belts, see map) have been pushed onto the older (pre-Tertiary) basement of the North Cascades.
  • There is a general north or northeast directed compression within the Lowland causing folds, which eventually break to become dip-slip (vertical movement) thrust or reverse faults.
  • Some strike-slip (horizontal) movement is expected along the peripheral faults (such as Southern Whidbey Island and Saddle Mountain faults).

Further complicating this is a feature of unknown structure and origin, the Olympic-Wallowa Lineament (OWL). This is a seemingly accidental alignment of topographic features that runs roughly east-southeast from the north side of the Olympic Peninsula to the Wallowa Mountains in northeastern Oregon. It aligns with the West Coast fault and Queen Charlotte Fault system of strike-slip fault zones (similar to the San Andreas Fault in California) on the west side of Vancouver Island, but does not itself show any strike-slip movement. It is of interest here because the various strands of the Seattle Fault change orientation where they appear to cross the OWL,[20] and various other features, such as the Rosedale monocline and Olympia structure, and a great many local topographical features, have parallel alignments. It may also be the original location of the Darrington—Devils Mountain Fault (the bowed fault at the top and right side of the figure).[21] The OWL appears to be a deep-seated structure over which the shallower crust of the Puget Lowland is being pushed, but this remains speculative.

Uplift and basin pattern

Bouguer gravity anomaly map of the Puget Sound region showing basins and uplifts, and principal faults and folds, over outline of Puget Sound, Hood Canal, and east end of Strait of Juan de Fuca. Blue and green generally indicate basins (with lower density sedimentary rock), red is generally uplifted basalt of the Crescent Formation. Unlabeled lines northwest of Everet Basin = Strawberry Point & Utsalady Point faults; E-F = Seattle Fault zone; C-D = Tacoma Fault zone; A = Olympia Fault; Doty Fault is east-west dashed line just north of Chehalis Basin; curved dashed line = Hood Canal Fault; Saddle Mountain Faults are due west of "D"; Tahuya Fault between D & C. (Modified from Vorlage:Harvnb, plate 1.)

Most of these "faults" are actually zones of complex faulting at the boundaries between sedimentary basins and crustal uplifts. There is a general pattern where most of these faults partition a series of basins and uplifts, each about 20 km wide. From the north these are (see the map at right):

  • Devils Mountain Fault zone (including Strawberry Point and Utsalady Point faults)
    • Everett Basin
  • Southern Whidbey Island Fault (SWIF)
    • "Uplift of unknown origin" (Port Ludlow)
  • Kingston arch (Lofall Fault[22])
    • Seattle Basin
  • Seattle Fault zone (line E)
    • Seattle Uplift
  • Tacoma Fault Zone (line D)
    • Tacoma Basin
  • Olympia fault (line A)
    • Black Hills Uplift
  • Doty Fault / Scammon Creek Fault (dashed lines)[23]
    • Chehalis Basin

The Hood Canal Fault (and its possible extensions) and Saddle Mountain faults to the west are believed to form the western boundary to all this. On the east, the Devils Mountain Fault connects with the south striking Darrington Fault (not shown) which runs to the OWL, and the Southern Whidbey Island Fault extends via the Rattlesnake Mountain Fault Zone (dashed line) to the OWL. South of the OWL a definite eastern boundary has not been found, with some indications it is indefinite. (E.g., the Olympia Fault is aligned with and appears to be the northernmost member of a set of faults between Olympia and Chehalis that may extend to the Columbia River, and there has been a suggestion that the Tacoma Fault may connect with the White River—Naches River fault on the east side of the Cascades.[24])

The uplift and basin pattern is continued to the west and southwest by the Grays Harbor Basin, Willapa Hills Uplift, and Astoria Basin,[25] but it is not known if these are bounded by faults in the same manner as in the Puget Sound region.

Structural models

Thrust sheet hypothesis

It is believed that all of these faults, folds, basins, and uplifts are related. According to the preeminent model, the "Puget Lowland thrust sheet hypothesis",[26] these faults, etc., occur within a sheet of crust about 14 to 20 km deep that has separated from and is being thrust over deeper crustal blocks. Most of this thrust sheet consists of the Crescent Formation (corresponding to the Siletz River volcanics in Oregon and Metchosin Formation on Vancouver Island), a vast outpouring of volcanic basalt from the Eocene epoch (about 50 million years ago), with an origin variously attributed to a seamount chain, or continental margin rifting.[27] This "basement" rock is covered with sedimentary deposits similar to the Chuckanut Formation, and more recent (typically Miocene) volcanic deposits. The Seattle uplift, and possibly the Black Hills uplift, consist of Crescent Formation basalt that was exposed when it was forced up a ramp of some kind. This ramp could be either in the lower crustal blocks, or where the thrust sheet has split and one part is being forced over the next.[28] Faults and folds may develop where the thrust sheet is being bent, or where the leading edge is thrust over softer, weaker sedimentary deposits, and breaks off and slumps.

If, as this model suggests, the various faults are interconnected within the thrust sheet, there is a possibility that one earthquake could trigger others.[29] This prospect is especially intriguing as a possible explanation of a cluster of seismic events around 1100 years ago.[30]

Seismotectonic modeling

The previous model studied seismicity, surface geology, and geophysical data to examine the fault structuring of the upper crust. Another model[31] – not so much in competition with the first as complementing it – used seismic and other data to create a 3-D tectonic model of the whole crust; this was then analyzed using finite element methods to determine regional geodynamic characteristics.

A principal finding is that "[c]rustal seismicity in the southern Puget Sound region appears to be controlled by a key block of Crescent Formation occurring just south of the Seattle fault."[32] More particularly, the concentration of seismicity under Puget Sound south of the Seattle Fault is attributed to that area riding on single block (terrane), bounded approximately by the Seattle Fault, the Olympia structure (fault?), Hood Canal (Saddle Mountain Faults?), and vaguely east of Seattle/Tacoma. And it is suggested that the Great Seattle Quake of approximately 1100 years ago, and other coseismic events in southern Puget Sound around that time, were a single event that affected this entire block, with a magnitude of around 8, possibly triggered by an earthquake deeper in the crust.[33]

For the following reviews the primary source of information is the U.S. Geological Survey's Quaternary fault and fold database, which includes a technical description and bibliography for each fault; a specific link is provided at the end of each section.

Devils Mountain Fault

Puget Lowland and "North Cascade Crystalline Core", divided by the Straight Creek Fault. The green colored area on the left has been pushed north, the purple area ("HH Melange") on the Darrington—Devils Mountain Fault originally being aligned on the Olympic Wallowa Lineament.

The Devils Mountain Fault (DMF) runs about 125 km (75 miles) from the town of Darrington in the Cascade foothills due west to the northern tip of Whidbey Island, and on towards Victoria, British Columbia, where the DMF is believed to join the Leech River fault system at the southern end of Vancouver Island. At Darrington it is seen to connect with the Darrington Fault, which runs nearly south 110 km to converge with the Straight Creek Fault (SCF), and then to turn near Easton to align with the Olympic-Wallowa Lineament; together these are known as the Darrington—Devils Mountain Fault Zone (DDMFZ).

The Devils Mountain Fault separates two similar but distinctive ensembles of Mesozoic (before the dinosaurs died) or older rock. On the north is the Helena—Haystack mélange (HH mélange, purple in the diagram at right), on the south the Western and Eastern mélange belts (WEMB, blue). There are some interesting relationships here. E.g., HH mélange rock has been found in Manastash Ridge, 110 km to the south (look for the small sliver of purple near the bottom of the diagram). Also, the sedimentary Chuckanut Formation (part of the NWCS, green) north of the DMF correlates to the Suak and Roslyn Formations just north of Manastash Ridge. All this is explained by right-lateral strike-slip motion on the Straight Creek Fault, which initiated about 50 to 48 Ma (millions of years ago). This is just after the terrane carrying the Olympic Mountains came into contact with the North American continent. These mélanges may have been off-shore islands or seamounts that were caught between the Olympic terrane and the North American continent, and were pushed up (obducted) onto the latter. Other similar rock has been found at the Rimrock Lake Inlier (bottom of diagram), in the San Juan Islands, and in the Pacific Coast Complex along the West Coast Fault on the west side of Vancouver Island. It appears the entire DDMFZ and Leech River fault system was pushed onto the early continental margin from an original alignment along the OWL. This is an important observation because the Strawberry Point, Utsalady Point, Southern Whidbey Island, and various other unnamed faults lying between the DDMFZ and the OWL – all of which converge at the western end of the DDMFZ – seem to be intermediate versions of the DDMFZ.[34]

Movement on the southern segment of the DDMFZ that converges with the SCF – the Darrington Fault – was, as on the SCF itself, right-lateral. And like the SCF, strike-slip motion died out between 44 and 41 MA (due to plutonic intrusions). But the western segment – the Devils Mountain Fault – is left-lateral movement. This is because the Olympic terrane is moving (relative to North America) northeast; its continued clockwise rotation is akin to a giant wheel rolling up the western side of the North Cascade crystalline core. The geology suggests that the DMF is moving obliquely up a ramp that rises to the east.[35]

The Devils Mountain Fault is seismically active, and there is evidence of Holocene offsets. If the entire 125 km length ruptured in a single event the resulting earthquake could be as large as magnitude 7.5. However, there are indications that the fault is segmented, which might limit rupturing and earthquake magnitude.[36]

Strawberry Point and Utsalady Point faults

Strands of the east-striking Devils Mountain Fault cross the northern tip of Whidbey Island at Dughalla Bay and north side of Ault Field (Whidbey Island Naval Air Station). Just four miles (6 km) south the city of Oak Harbor straddles several stands of the Utsalady Point Fault (UPF) as they head roughly east-southeast towards Utsalady Point at the north end of Camano Island. And in between these two the Strawberry Point Fault (SPF) skirts the south side of Ault Field, splits into various strands that bracket Strawberry Point, and then disappear (possibly ending) under the delta of the Skagit River. Both the SPF and UPF are said to be oblique-slip transpressional; that is, the faults show both horizontal and vertical slip as the crustal blocks are pressed together. These faults also form the north and south boundaries of uplifted pre-Tertiary rock, suggesting that the faults come together at a lower level, much like one model of the Seattle and Tacoma faults, but at a smaller scale. Marine seismic reflection surveys on either side of Whidbey Island extend the known length of these faults to at least 26 and 28 km (about 15 miles). The true length of the UPF is likely twice as long, as it forms the southern margin of an aeromagnetic high that extends another 25 km to the southeast.[37] Trenching on the UPF (at a scarp identified by LIDAR) shows at least one and probably two Holocene earthquakes of magnitude 6.7 or more, the most recent one between A.D. 1550 to 1850, and possibly triggered by the 1700 Cascadia earthquake.[38] These earthquakes probably caused tsunamis, and several nearby locations have evidence of tsunamis not correlated with other known quakes.

While there is a bit of uplifted pre-Tertiary rock between the SPF and UPF, this does not truly fit the uplift and basin pattern described above because of the small scale (2 km wide rather than around 20), and because the uplift here is entirely like a wedge being popped out between two nearly vertical faults, rather than being forced over a ramp such as is involved with the Seattle and Tacoma faults. Nor does this uplift delineate any significant basin between it and the Devils Mountain Fault.[39] On the basis of marine seismic reflection surveying in the Strait of Juan de Fuca it has been suggested that the DMF, SPF, and UPF are structurally connected (at least in the segment crossing Whidbey Island).[40]

Southern Whidbey Island Fault

Location and known extent (prior to 2004) of Southern Whidbey Island Fault (SWIF). Also shown: Devils Mountain, Strawbery Point, and Utsalady Point faults (crossing northern Whidbey Island), Seattle Fault zone, southern part of Rattlesnake Mountain Fault Zone, Tokul Creek Fault (striking NNE from RMFZ). This map is approximately one-quarter the scale of the map below. (USGS[41])
Simplified geologic map of the Snoqualmie Valley (east of Seattle) from North Bend to Duvall, showing various strands of the Rattlesnake Mountain Fault (RMF), and the Snoqualmie Valley (SVF), Griffin Creek (GCF), and Tokul Creek (TCF) faults. Southeastern limit of Southern Whidbey Island Fault at Duvall (3), other faults south of I-90 not shown. (From DGER Geological Map Vorlage:Harvnb)

East of Victoria, British Columbia the Southern Whidbey Island Fault (SWIF) diverges from the Devils Mountain Fault (reviewed above) to strike southeast through Admiralty Inlet (off of Port Townsend) and across the southern part of Whidbey Island, with several strands crossing to the mainland between Mukilteo and Edmonds. This much was known from aeromagnetic, gravitational, and marine seismic reflection data dating from 1980, and the SWIF was mapped with a length of 65 km (40 miles). Prominent aeromagnetic anomalies strongly suggested that the fault zone continued, perhaps as far as Duvall, but this was uncertain as the SWIF is largely concealed, and the faint surface traces generally obliterated by urban development. Subsequent analysis of LIDAR and high-resolution aeromagnetic data identified possible scarps near Woodinville which trenching has confirmed to be tectonically derived and geologically recent.[42] By this and other work[43] the SWIF is now believed to extend about 150 km (90 miles) from Victoria to near Fall City (about 20 miles east of Seattle), then merging with the Rattlesnake Mountain Fault Zone.[44]

Just west of North Bend is Rattlesnake Mountain, a prominent ridge of uplifted rock that runs from the inferred trace of the OWL (Olympic-Wallowa Lineament) north-northwest towards Fall City. It is the location (and possibly a result) of the Rattlesnake Mountain Fault Zone (RMFZ; shown as a dashed line on the basin and fault map above, and shown with more detail at right),[45] a band of at least eleven faults that have been mapped to Fall City and beyond, forming the eastern edge of the Seattle Uplift and truncating the Seattle Fault. It is generally believed to be an extension of the SWIF. However, it has also been suggested that the SWIF continues more easterly to cross the Cascades before merging with the OWL.[46] The change in direction from southeast to south-southeast where the SWIF intercepts the Kingston arch (near Duvall) suggests a junction of two distinct fault systems, reflecting slightly different stress regimes, with the possibility of the SWIF continuing southeast, and the RMFZ diverging from it. However, this clashes with the preference of many geologists to connect the SWIF via the RMFZ and undiscovered faults to the south with the Saint Helens Zone or Western Rainier Zone (both very active seismic zones under the respective volcanoes) to form the "Coast Range Boundary Fault".[47]

The SWIF and RMFZ constitute "a significant terrane boundary between basement blocks underlain by Eocene marine basalts of the Coast Range province [Crescent Formation] to the southwest and pre-Tertiary metamorphic rocks of the Cascades province to the northeast."[48] In short, this is where the crustal blocks of the Puget Lowland strike against the terranes of the North Cascades, which are jammed against the North American craton; this is the structural boundary between two distinct terranes. Unlike the Devils Mountain fault to the north, where rocks of the Western and Eastern Melange belts have been pushed over the rock of the Cascades, here the angle between the compressive force and the fault is great enough to allow the blocks to slip past each other, creating significant strike-slip as well as dip-slip movement.

The SWIF is seismically notable in that "most seismicity in the northern Puget Sound occurs along and southwest of the southern Whidbey Island fault at typical depths of 15–27 km within the lower part of the Crescent Formation."[49] Also notable is that in the first 38 years of instrumental recording there have been essentially no shallow (less than 12 km deep) earthquakes in the Everett Basin or on the section of the SWIF adjoining it.[50] Paleoseismological studies of the SWIF are scant. One study compared the relative elevation of two marshes on opposite sides of Whidbey Island, and determined that approximately 3,000 years ago an earthquake of M 6.5—7.0 caused 1 to 2 meters of uplift.[51] Another study[52] identified an unusually broad band of scarps passing between Bothell and Snohomish, with several scarps in the vicinity of projected sewage treatment plant showing at least four and possibly nine events on the SWIF in the last 16,400 years.

In addition to all the usual general seismic hazards, the prospect of a M 6.5+ earthquake on the SWIF is of interest in a particular regard: King County's controversial "Brightwater Treatment Facility" (a regional sewage treatment facility) is tucked between two active strands of the SWIF, with influent and effluent pipelines crossing multiple zones of disturbed ground. For the County's interpretation of the geological hazard, what they have done in mitigation and why they think it is adequate, and the anticipated impacts of a major earthquake, see the Brightwater environmental impact statements.

Vorlage:Smiley: Der Parameter 3 wurde nicht erkannt!Vorlage:Smiley/Wartung/ErrorVorlage:Smiley/Wartung/3 (No entry for the Rattlesnake Mountain Fault Zone.)

Seattle Fault

The Seattle Fault is a zone of complex thrust and reverse faults – between lines E and F on the map – up to 7 km wide and over 70 km long that delineates the north edge of the Seattle Uplift. It stands out in regard of its east-west orientation, depth to bedrock, and hazard to an urban population center.[53] It is the most studied fault in the region; it will be treated in somewhat greater detail.

Approximate location of the Seattle Fault, showing eastern junction with SWIF and RMFZ. Western extension uncertain past Blue Hills uplift (marked "OP").

The Seattle Fault was first identified in 1965[54] but not documented as an active fault until 1992 with a set of five articles establishing that about 1100 years ago (A.D. 900—930) an earthquake of magnitude 7+ uplifted Restoration Point and Alki Point, dropped West Point (the three white triangles in the Seattle Basin on the map), caused rockslides in the Olympics, landslides into Lake Washington, and a tsunami on Puget Sound.[55] It extends as far east as (and probably terminates at) the Rattlesnake Mountain Fault Zone (RMFZ; the southern extension of the SWIF) near Fall City. This seems geologically reasonable, as both the SWIF and RMFZ appear to be the contact between Tertiary Crescent Formation basement of Puget Sound on the west and the older Mesozoic mélange belt basement rocks under the Cascades on the east.[56]

Question of western termination

Determination of the western terminus of the Seattle Fault has been problematical, and has implications for the entire west side of the Puget Lowland. Initially it was not specified, and rather vaguely indicated to be west of Restoration Point (i.e., west of Puget Sound).[57] In 1994 it was stated (without support) that "the Seattle Fault "appears to be truncated by the Hood Canal fault ... and does not extend into the Olympic Mountains".[58] This seems reasonable enough, as Hood Canal is a prominent physiographic boundary between the Olympic Mountains and Puget Lowlands, and believed to be the location of a major fault.[59] Subsequent authors were confident enough to trace the fault west of Bremerton to just north of Green Mountain (the northwestern corner of the Blue Hills uplift – see "E" on the map – a topographically prominent exposure of uplifted basalt) and just short of Hood Canal;[60] but reticent to map the fault further west as the distinctive aeromagnetic lineament used to locate the Seattle Fault dies out just west of Bremerton.[61]

An extension of some 10 km west of Hood Canal into the Olympic Mountains has been suggested on evidence that the Saddle Mountain Fault (discussed below), to the west of Hood Canal, might extend as far north as the Seattle Fault, and might be even be kinematically linked.[62] Geologic mapping[63] and a recent seismic reflection study[64] shows the Seattle Fault wrapping around Green Mountain to strike southwest towards Hood Canal, and possibly joining with the Saddle Mountain Fault.

Another complication is an unusually strong north-south striking geophysical anomaly (appearing in gravitational, aeromagnetic, and seismic tomography data) that bounds the west side of the Seattle uplift (vertical black line below "D" on the map), separating it from the Dewatto Basin to the west.[65] This appears to be a deep fault, possibly with significant vertical and horizontal offsets, which has recently (2009) been named the Tahuya Fault.[66] To the south it appears to terminate at the Tacoma Fault; the nature of its junction with the Seattle Fault is undetermined. It is suggestively aligned with Dabob Bay, where the Hood Canal Fault is believed to strike north, but any possible connection is as yet pure speculation.

Structure

Cross-section of one model of the Seattle uplift. Models differ on the nature of the ramp and details of the faults. (From Vorlage:Harvnb, figure 17D.)

The Seattle Fault is the most studied of the regional faults, which has led to several models of its structure, which may also be relevant to other faults. In the wedge model of Vorlage:Harvtxt a slab of rock – mainly basalts of the Crescent Formation &nash; about 20 km thick is being pushed up a "master ramp" of deeper material; this forms the Seattle Uplift. The Seattle fault zone is where the forward edge of the slab, coming to the top of the ramp, breaks and slips into the Seattle Basin. In this model the Tacoma fault zone is primarily the result local adjustments as the slab bends upward at the bottom of the ramp.

The passive roof duplex model of Vorlage:Harvtxt,[67] relying on seismic tomography data from the "Seismic Hazards Investigation in Puget Sound" (SHIPS) experiment, retains the thrusting slab and master ramp concepts, but interprets the Tacoma fault as a reverse fault (or back thrust) that dips north towards the south dipping Seattle fault (see diagram); as a result the Seattle Uplift is being popped up like a horst.

While these models vary in some details, both indicate that the Seattle Fault itself is capable of a magnitude 7.5 earthquake.[68] But if the Seattle Fault should break in conjunction with other faults (discussed above), considerably more energy would be released, on the order of ~M 8.[69]

Tacoma Fault Zone

Tacoma fault zone, with multiple southeast-striking strands, and part of the Olympia fault.(USGS[70])


The Tacoma Fault (at right, and also between lines C and D on the Uplift and basin map, above) just north of the city of Tacoma, Washington has been described as "one of the most striking geophysical anomalies in the Puget Lowland".[71] The western part is an active east–west striking north dipping reverse fault that separates the Seattle Uplift and the Tacoma Basin, with approximately 30 miles (50 km) of identified surface rupture. It is believed capable of generating earthquakes of at least magnitude 7, and there is evidence of such a quake approximately 1,000 years ago, possibly the same earthquake documented on the Seattle Fault 24 miles (38 km) to the north.[72] This is likely not coincidental, as it appears that the Tacoma and Seattle faults converge at depth (see diagram above) in a way that north-south compression tends to force the Seattle Uplift up, resulting in dip-slip movement on both fault zones.[73]

The Tacoma Fault was first identified by Vorlage:Harvtxt as a gravitational anomaly ("structure K") running east across the northern tip of Case and Carr Inlets, then southeast under Commencement Bay and towards the town of Puyallup. Not until 2001 was it identified as a fault zone,[74] and only in 2004 did trenching reveal Holocene activity.[75]

Interpretation of the eastern part of the Tacoma Fault is not entirely settled.[76] Most authors align it with the strong gravitational anomaly (which typically reflects where faulting has juxtaposed rock of different density) and topographical lineament down Commencement Bay. This follows the front of the Rosedale monocline, a gently southwest-tilting formation that forms the bluffs on which Tacoma is built.

On the other hand, the contrasting character of the east-striking and southeast-striking segments is unsettling, and the change of direction somewhat difficult to reconcile with the observed fault traces. Especially as seismic reflection data[77] shows some faulting continuing east across Vashon Island and the East Passage of Puget Sound (the East Passage Zone, EPZ) towards Federal Way and an east-striking anticline. Whether the faulting continues eastward is not yet determined. The EPZ is active, being the locale of the 1995 M 5 Point Robinson earthquake.[78]

There is evidence that the Tacoma Fault connects with the White River River Fault (WRF) via the EPZ and Federal Way, under the Muckleshoot Basin (see map),[79] and thence to the Naches River Fault. If so, this would be a major fault system (over 120 km long), connecting the Puget Lowland with the Yakima Fold Belt on the other side of the Cascades, with possible implications for both the Olympic—Wallowa Lineament (which it parallels) and geological structure south of the OWL.

The western end of the Tacoma Fault is curious, as near the small town of Allyn (near the extreme tip of Hood Canal) it appears to make a sharp turn to the north, and follows a strong geophysical lineament[80] which has recently (2009) been named the Tahuya Fault.[81] This appears to be the western termination of the Seattle Uplift. The gap between this and Hood Canal is the Dewatto Basin, which thus forms an appendage to the northwestern corner of the Tacoma Basin. One hypothesis as to how this formed is based on the regional compressive force coming not from the south, but southwest (normal to the Rosedale monocline); this raises the prospect of left-lateral strike-slip motion on the east-west oriented parts of the Tacoma and Seattle faults.[82]

Hood Canal Fault

Hood Canal marks an abrupt change in physiography between the Puget Lowland and the Olympic Mountains to the west. Gravitational anomalies and seismic reflection data suggest that there is a major fault zone from the south end of Hood Canal to Dabob Bay,[83] and continuing north on land. It is inferred that if this fault is a terrane boundary between the Olympics and the Puget Lowland (but read about the Saddle Mountain Faults, below), then it must connect with various faults in the Strait of Juan de Fuca. But whether this is via the Discovery Bay Fault, or further east (passing close to Port Townsend) remains speculative due to lack of definite scarps and paleoseismological investigation.

This fault is "largely inferred"[84] due to a paucity of evidence. Possible Holocene movement is likewise inferred from a possible connection with the Seattle Fault, but even that connection is doubted (discussed above). Evidence is accumulating that the Saddle Mountain Faults (discussed next), which show recent activity, are the structural boundary of the Puget Lowland. Recent (2010) mapping "found no convincing evidence for the existence of this fault";[85] it is possible that there is no fault under Hood Canal.

Saddle Mountain Faults

In red: Saddle Mountain faults (west and east) extension to the southwest inferred from aeromagnetic and LIDAR evidence, Dow Mountain fault (offset by SM east), and Frigid Creek fault.

The Saddle Mountain Faults ("East" and "West", and not to be confused with a different Saddle Mountains Fault in Adams county, eastern Washington[86]), first described in 1973 and 1975,[87] are a set of northeast trending reverse faults on the south-east flank of the Olympic Mountains near Lake Cushman associated with prominent scarps. The mapped surface traces are only 5 km long, but LIDAR-derived imagery shows longer lineaments, with the traces cutting Holocene alluvial traces. A recent (2009) analysis of aeromagnetic data[88] suggests that it extends at least 35 km, from the latitude of the Seattle Fault (the Hamma Hamma River) to about 6 km south of Lake Cushman. Other faults to the south and southeast – the Frigid Creek Fault and Canyon River Fault – suggest an extended zone of faulting at least 45 km long. Although the southwest striking Canyon River Fault is not seen to directly connect with the Saddle Mountain faults, they are in general alignment, and both occur in a similar context of Miocene faulting (where Crescent Formation strata has been uplifted by the Olympics) and a linear aeromagnetic anomaly.[89] The Canyon River Fault is a major fault in itself, associated with a 40 km long lineament and distinct late Holocene scarps of up to 3 meters.[90]

Although these faults are west of the Hood Canal Fault (previously presumed to be the western boundary of the Puget Lowland), they appear to be kinematically related to the Seattle Fault: trench studies indicate major earthquakes (in the range of M 6. to 7.8) on the Saddle Mountain[91] and Canyon River[92] faults at nearly the same time (give or take a century) as the great quake on the Seattle Fault about 1100 years ago (900—930 A.D.).[93]

As the broader extent of these faults is revealed, it appears they are capable of large earthquakes that pose a hazard to Seattle and Tacoma (and nearer areas) directly, as well to the City of Tacoma's dams at Lake Cushman,[94] located in the fault zone.[95]

Olympia Structure

The Olympia structure – also known as the Legislature fault[96] – is an 80 km long gravitational and aeromagnetic anomaly that separates the sedimentary deposits of the Tacoma Basin from the basalt of the Black Hills Uplift (between lines A and B on the map). It is not known to be seismic – indeed, there is very little seismicity south of the Tacoma Basin as far as Chehalis[97] – and not even conclusively established to be a fault.

This structure is shown in the gravitational mapping of 1965, but without comment.[98] Vorlage:Harvtxt, labelling it "structure L", mapped it from Shelton (near the Olympic foothills) southeast to Olympia (pretty nearly right under the state Legislature), directly under the town of Rainier, to a point due east of the Doty Fault, and apparently marking the northeastern limit of a band of southeast striking faults in the Centralia-Chehalis area. They interpreted it as "simple folds in Eocene bedrock", though Vorlage:Harvtxt saw sufficient similarity with the Seattle Fault to speculate that this is a thrust fault. Vorlage:Harvtxt, while observing the "remarkable straight boundaries that we interpret as evidence of structural control",[99] refrained from calling this structure a fault. (Their model of the Black Hills Uplift is analogous with their "wedge" model of the Seattle Uplift, discussed above, but in the opposite direction. If entirely analogous, then "roof duplex" might also apply, and the Olympia Fault would be a reverse fault similar to the Tacoma Fault.)

Aeromagnetic mapping in 1999 showed a very prominent anomaly[100] (such as typically indicates a contrast of rock type); that, along with paleoseismological evidence of a major Holocene earthquake, has led to a suggestion that this structure "may be associated with faulting".[101] One reason for caution is that a detailed gravity survey was unable to resolve whether the Olympia structure is, or is not, a fault.[102] Although no surface traces of faulting have been found in either the Holocene glacial sediments or the basalts of the Black Hills,[103] on the basis of well-drilling logs a fault has been mapped striking southeast from Offut Lake (just west of Rainier); it appears to be in line with the easternmost fault mapped in the Centralia—Chehalis area.[104]

A marine seismic reflection study[105] found evidence of faulting at the mouth of Budd Inlet, just north of the Olympia structure, and aligning with faint lineaments seen in the lidar imagery. These faults are not quite aligned with the Olympia structure, striking N75W (285°) rather than N45W (315°). It is uncertain how these faults relate to the structure, and whether they are deep-seated faults, or fractures due to bending of the shallow crust.

It has been speculated that the OS might connect with the seismically active Saint Helens Zone (discussed below), which would imply that the OS is both locked and being stressed, raising the possibility of a major earthquake.[106] Alternately, the OS appears to coincide with a gravitational boundary in the upper crust that has been mapped striking southeast to The Dalles on the Columbia River,[107] where there is a swarm of similarly striking faults.[108]

That Olympia and the south Sound are at risk of major earthquakes is shown by evidence of subsidence at several locations in southern Puget Sound some 1100 years ago.[109] What is unknown is whether this was due to a great subduction earthquake, to the noted earthquake on the Seattle Fault about that time, or to an earthquake on a local fault (e.g., the Olympia structure); there is some evidence that there were two earthquakes over a short time period. Subsidence dated to between A.D. 1445 and 1655 has been reported in Mud Bay (just east of Olympia).[110]

Vorlage:Smiley: Der Parameter 3 wurde nicht erkannt!Vorlage:Smiley/Wartung/ErrorVorlage:Smiley/Wartung/3 (Not included in the USGS Quaternary fault database.)

Doty Fault

Excerpt from Geologic Map Vorlage:Harvnb, showing faults in the Centralia—Chehalis Coal District, Lewis County, Washington. Doty—Salzer Creek Fault runs east-west between Centralia and Chehalis (black squares). Map available on-line. Click on image for enlargement.

The Doty Fault – the southernmost of the uplift-and-basin dividing faults reviewed here, and located just north of the Chehalis Basin – is one of nearly a dozen faults mapped in the Centralia—Chehalis coal district in 1958.[111] While the towns of Centralia and Chehalis in rural Lewis County may seem distant (about 25 miles) from Puget Sound, this is still part of the Puget Lowland, and these faults, the local geology, and the underlying tectonic basement seem to be connected with that immediately adjacent to Puget Sound. And though the faults in this area are not notably seismogenic, the southeast striking faults seem to be en echelon with the Olympia structure (fault?), and headed for the definitely active Saint Helens Zone; this appears to be a large scale structure. The Doty fault particularly seems to have gained prominence with geologists since it was associated with an aeromagnetic anomaly,[112] and a report in 2000 credited it capable of a magnitude 6.7 to 7.2 earthquake.[113] The prospect of a major earthquake on the Doty Fault poses a serious hazard to the entire Puget Sound region as it threatens vital economic lifelines: At Chehalis there is but a single freeway (Interstate 5) and a single rail line connecting the Puget Sound region with the rest of the west coast; the only alternate routes are very lengthy.[114]

The Doty fault has been mapped from the north side of the Chehalis airport due west to the old logging town of Doty (due north of Pe Ell), paralleled most of that distance by its twin, the Salzer Creek Fault, about half a mile to the north. Both of these are dip-slip (vertical) faults; the block between them has been popped up by compressive forces. The Doty Fault appears to terminate against, or possibly merge with, the Salzer Creek Fault at Chehalis; the Salzer Creek Fault is traced another seven miles east of Chehalis. The length of the Doty Fault is problematical: the report in 2000 gave it as 65 km (40 miles), but without comment or citation.[115] Such a length would be comparable to the length of the Seattle or Tacoma faults, and capable of an earthquake of M 6.7. But it does not appear that there have been studies of the deeper structure of these faults, or whether there has been any recent activity.

The Doty—Salzar Creek Fault does not fully fit the regional pattern of basins and uplifts bounded by faults described above. It does bound the north side of the Chehalis basin, but the south boundary of the Black Hills Uplift is more properly the southeast striking Scammon Creek Fault that converges with the Doty—Salzar Creek Fault just north of Chehalis.[116] In the acute angle between these is located the minor Lincoln Creek uplift, the Doty Hills, and an impressive chunk of uplifted Crescent basalt (reddish area at west edge of the map). The SE striking Scammon Creek Fault seems to be terminated by the Salzer Creek Fault (the exact relationship is not clear), with the latter continuing east for another seven miles. Yet the former is only the first of at least six more parallel southeast striking faults, which do cross the Salzer Creek Fault. These faults are: the Kopiah Fault (note the curious curve), Newaukum Fault, Coal Creek Fault, and three other unnamed faults. Just past them is the parallel Olympia Structure, which as a geophysical lineament has been traced to a point due east of Chehalis;[117] these would seem to be related somehow, but the nature of that relationship is not yet known.

Though these faults have been traced for only a little ways, the southeast striking anticlines they are associated with continue as far as Riffe Lake, near Mossy Rock. They are also on-strike with a swarm of faults on the Columbia River, bracketing The Dalles. As all of these are thrust and reverse faults, they probably result from northeast directed regional compression.[118] These faults also cross the Saint Helens Zone (SHZ), a deep, north-northwest trending zone of seismicity that appears to be the contact between different crustal blocks.[119] How they might be connected is unknown.

What makes the Doty—Salzer Fault (and the short Chehalis Fault striking due east from Chehalis) stand out from the many other faults south of Tacoma is its east-west strike; the significance of this is not known.

Vorlage:Smiley: Der Parameter 3 wurde nicht erkannt!Vorlage:Smiley/Wartung/ErrorVorlage:Smiley/Wartung/3 (Not included in the USGS fault database. See Vorlage:Harvnb and Geologic Map Vorlage:Harvnb for details.)

Saint Helens Zone, Western Rainier Zone

Mid-crustal (10—20 km deep) seismicity in western Washington. (USGS OFR 99-311)

The two most striking concentrations of mid-crustal seismicity in western Washington outside of Puget Sound are the Western Rainier Zone (WRZ) and Saint Helens Zone (SHZ) at the south edge of the Puget Lowland (see map, right). Indeed, it is primarily by their seismicity that they are known and have been located, neither showing any surface faulting.[120] The WRZ and SHZ lie just outside the topographical basin that constitutes the Puget Lowland (see map), do not participate in the uplift and basin pattern, and unlike the rest of the faults in the Puget Lowland (which are reverse or thrust faults reflecting mostly compressive forces) they appear to be strike-slip faults; they reflect a geological context distinctly different from the rest of the Puget Lowland. Yet they may be integral to the regional geology, possibly revealing some deep and significant facets, and may also present significant seismic hazard.

The WRZ and SHZ are associated with the southern Washington Cascades conductor (SWCC), a formation of electrically conductive Eocene and older marine sediments at least 15 km thick that lies between the SHZ (eastern edge of the Crescent Formation basalts of the Coast Range) and Mount Rainier (western edge of pre-Tertiary rocks of the North American continent), and extending south about 90 km.[121] The WRZ is associated with folding (the Carbon River anticline) on a narrow section of the SWCC that extends north of Mount Rainier and possibly connects with the Muckleshoot Basin (the gap between "EPZ" and "WRF" on the map).[122] The Raging River anticline just west of Rattlesnake Mountain (see map) and related structures in the Black Diamond—Tiger Mountain area are possibly an extension of the Carbon River anticline, but do not exhibit similar seismicity.[123]

The western extent of the pre-Tertiary basement rock of the Cascade Range – effectively the eastern structural boundary of the Puget Lowland – presumably connects between Mount Rainier and the known contact at the Rattlesnake Mountain Fault Zone due north.[124] However, this is not a simple continuation of the RMFZ, as south of the OWL there are no geophysical or surface manifestations similar to what is associated with the RMFZ.[125]

The SHZ is the nearly vertical contact between the Crescent Formation and the western edge of the SWCC. The SHZ has been suspected of connecting with the Olympia Structure (discussed below), or even trending more northerly towards the Tahuya Fault, but either of these raises a question regarding the eastern extent of the Crescent Formation, which is known to lie at least as far east as Seattle,[126] At the indefinite northern end of the SHZ a faint zone of seismicity heads towards Mount Rainier. It is unknown whether this is the northern extent of the SWCC, or only where it is overlaid by volcanic deposits of the Northcraft Formation;[127] it may be associated with a north-northeast alignment discussed next.

A curious aspect of this region of the Cascades is a repeated motif of northeast and north-northeast alignments. Mount St. Helens (just south of the bottom of the map) is located where the SHZ is slightly offset along a line of northeast trending volcanic vents. This and various other "rather subtle features" are part of a broad zone of volcanic features that stretches past Mount Rainier to Glacier Peak.[128] This includes a "stepover" (transfer of strain and seismicity) from the north end of the SHZ towards Mount Rainier, which is paralleled by a similar but wider stepover between the SHZ and similar faults near Portland.

This broad zone of heightened seismicity and volcanic activity has been speculatively attributed to a "deep-seated lithospheric flaw".[129] It also nearly follows the estimated contour of where the top of the subducting slab is 70 km deep,[130] which largely outlines the eastern boundary of the Puget Lowland uplift and basin pattern and its extension (via the Willapa Hills, Astoria Basin, and Nehalem Hills east of Portland) to the Oregon coast. Curiously, the western boundary of the uplift and basin region follows the estimated 30 km depth contour, but it seems no one has commented on the significance of this. Some scientists have located a "locked" (stuck) portion of the subducting slab within the 30–70 km contours, and attributed some of the tectonic stresses across the SHZ specifically and the Puget Sound region generally with this locked zone.[131] However, the generally prevalent view now places the locked zone off-shore,[132] and the significance of the 70 km contour is not known.

Seismicity on the SHZ tapers off just north of the Cowlitz River (Riffe Lake), but the fault itself has been suspected of extending further, perhaps linking with the unstudied geophysical anomaly known as the Olympia Structure (OS). This would have enormous repercussions regarding the current understanding of both geological structure and seismic hazard: if combined, it would be an unusually long fault with a seismogenic section accumulating stress against a locked section which, when it ruptures, could generate a major earthquake.[133] Arguing against such a conjunction are various differences (including depth, seismicity, and surface expression), that Crescent Formation contact is probably to the east, and that the Olympia Structure appears to be part of a gravitational boundary in the upper crust that (as described above) bears more easterly towards The Dalles on the Columbia River, and appears to be unconnected with the SHZ.

Alternatively, analysis of the seismic waves of several large earthquakes indicates differences in stress orientation on either side of the SHZ. There is some minimal evidence that this differentiation may extend north under the Kitsap Peninsula (approximately past the west ends of the Seattle and Tacoma fault zones).[134] This is suggestively close to the recently (2009) discovered Tahuya Fault (TF), which is manifested as a deep geophysical anomaly, and appears to truncate the Tacoma Fault. Such a connection would radically modify current understanding of the Puget Sound faults; the possible impact on seismic hazard is totally unknown.

Other faults

Actual

Each of the faults reviewed here is more typically a zone of related faults, or strands. There are numerous other seismogenic faults (or fault zones) in the Puget Lowland, sketchily studied and largely unnamed. These are usually fairly short, and not believed to be significantly seismogenic, though the Snoqualmie Valley Fault, Griffin Creek Fault, and Tokul Creek Fault (see map) are in an area of active seismicity.[135] The San Juan Island and Leach River faults crossing the southern end of Vancouver Island are significant and undoubtably connected with the Darrington—Devils Mountain and Southern Whidbey Island faults, and certainly of particular interest to the residents of Victoria, B.C.. But their significance to the Puget Sound area is unknown.

The Little River Fault (see the Fault and Fold Database) is representative of an extensive zone of faults along the north side of the Olympic Peninsula and in the Strait of Juan de Fuca (likely connected with the fault systems at the south end of Vancouver Island, see fault database map), but these lie west of the crustal blocks that underlie the Puget Lowland, and again their possible impact on the Puget Sound region is unknown. One of these faults, the Sequim Fault Zone (striking east from the town of Sequim), crosses Discovery Bay (and various possible extensions of the Hood Canal Fault) and bounds the Port Ludlow Uplift ("uplift of unknown origin" on the map); it appears to extend to the Southern Whidbey Island Fault.[136]

An Everett Fault, running east-northeast along the bluffs between Mukilteo and Everett – that is, east of the SWIF and at the southern edge of the Everett Basin – has been claimed, but this does not appear to have been corroborated.[137]

A Lofall Fault has been reported on the basis of marine seismic reflection surveying, [138] but has not been confirmed by trenching. This fault seems to be associated with the Kingston arch anticline, and part of the uplift and basin pattern, but shortened because of the geometry of the SWIF. It is not notably seismogenic.

Although the largely unstudied White River Fault (WRF) appears to lie just outside of the Puget Lowland, it may actually connect under the Muckleshoot Basin to the East Passage Zone and the Tacoma Fault (map).[139] This would pose significantly greater seismic hazard than currently recognized, especially as the White River Fault is believed to connect with the Naches River Fault that extends along Highway 410 on the east side of the Cascades towards Yakima.

The Straight Creek Fault is a major structure in the North Cascades, but has not been active for over 30 million years.[140] Various other faults in the North Cascades are older (being offset by the Straight Creek Fault) and are unrelated to the faults in Puget Sound.

Conjectured

A Puget Sound Fault running down the center of Puget Sound (and Vashon Island) was once proposed,[141] but seems to have not been accepted by the geological community. A Coast Range Boundary Fault (CRBF) was inferred on the basis of lithological differences and to explain northward displacement of Crescent Formation rocks, and arbitrarily mapped at various locations including Lake Washington; this is now identified, north of the OWL, with the Southern Whidbey Island Fault, and its extension through the Rattlesnake Mountain Fault Zone.[142] Whether the Rattlesnake Mountain Fault Zone extends south of the OWL is not yet known. Some authors still infer a CRBF fault south of the OWL, usually offset to the west from the Rattlesnake Mountain Fault Zone to align it with faults coming north from Mount Rainier and Mount St. Helens,[143] but this is still conjectural.

See also

External links

Notes

Vorlage:Reflist

References

  1. ↑ "The Puget Lowland is a north-south-trending structural basin that is flanked by Mesozoic and Tertiary rocks of the Cascade Range on the east and by Eocene rocks of the Olympic Mountains on the west." Vorlage:Harvnb, p. 2, and see Figure 1. The Georgia Basin to the north is structurally related, but topographically demarcated by the Chuckanut Mountains near Bellingham.
  2. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, p.2.
  3. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, p.1611; Vorlage:Harvnb, p.8; Vorlage:Harvnb, p. 6138.
  4. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, p.11.
  5. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, figures 46—50. See the maps.
  6. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, p. 2.
  7. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb.
  8. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb; Vorlage:Harvnb.
  9. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, p. 1
  10. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb.
  11. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb; Vorlage:Harvnb; Vorlage:Harvnb, p.1369; Vorlage:Harvnb; Vorlage:Harvnb, p. 2299.
  12. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb.
  13. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb; Vorlage:Harvnb.
  14. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb.
  15. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, figure 5a.
  16. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb.
  17. ↑ Troost, The Origin of Puget Sound.
  18. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, p. 27,471.
  19. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, p. 43.
  20. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb
  21. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, pp. 217, 230.
  22. ↑ Because of the geometry of the SWIF and the Kingston arch, the "uplift of unknown origin" between them is smaller, and the fault separating the uplift from the arch (the Lofall Fault, discovered relatively recently by Vorlage:Harvnb) is shorter; it is not notably seismogenic.
  23. ↑ Strictly speaking the southern edge of the Black Hills Uplift would be the southeast striking Scammon Creek Fault that converges with the east striking Doty Fault at Chehalis. In the angle between these is located the minor Lincoln Creek uplift, the Doty Hills, and, further west, an impressive chunk of Crescent basalt. If the pattern is continued to the southwest, along cross-section A-A' in Pratt's figure 11 (and missing the mapped trace of the Doty Fault), then the next basin is at Grays Harbor (not shown here). The Doty Fault/Chehalis Basin sequence follows the cross-section X-X' shown on the map.
  24. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb.
  25. ↑ See Vorlage:Harvnb, figure 2.
  26. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb.
  27. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, p. 6799.
  28. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, see figure 2; Vorlage:Harvnb, see figure 17.
  29. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, p. 27,486.
  30. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb.
  31. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, USGS Open-File Report 99-0311.
  32. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, p. 46, and see figure 64.
  33. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, pp. 45, 46.
  34. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb.
  35. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb.
  36. ↑ Geologic Map Vorlage:Harvnb (McMurray).
  37. ↑ USGS Fault and Fold Database.
  38. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, p.2313.
  39. ↑ Geologic Map Vorlage:Harvnb (Oak Harbor and Crescent Harbor).
  40. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, p.444.
  41. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb.
  42. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb (USGS OFR 04-1204); Vorlage:Harvnb (USGS OFR 05-1136); Vorlage:Harvnb.
  43. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb.
  44. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, paragraphs 75, 78, 84; Geologic Map Vorlage:Harvnb (Fall City). Although, as discussed below, these faults may be distinct, and join near Duvall.
  45. ↑ Geologic Map Vorlage:Harvnb (North Bend).
  46. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, paragraph 78.
  47. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, figures 1 and 14, and p. 351.
  48. ↑ USGS Fault and Fold database.
  49. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, p. 351.
  50. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, paragraph 11.
  51. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb.
  52. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, pp. 15, 2.
  53. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, p.3.
  54. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, pp. 5576—5577, and figure 5.
  55. ↑ See Vorlage:Harvnb, and additional references at Seattle Fault.
  56. ↑ Geologic Map Vorlage:Harvnb (Fall City), p. 11; Geologic Map Vorlage:Harvnb (North Bend), pp. 9, 12.
  57. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, see figure 1.
  58. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, p74.
  59. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, pp. 5577—5579.
  60. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, figure 6; Vorlage:Harvnb, figure 1; Vorlage:Harvnb, figures 1, 2, and 3. Curiously, Vorlage:Harvtxt, having failed to find any definite indications of a fault zone in seismic-reflection profiles in Hood Canal, claimed (p. 1048) that "the Seattle fault does not extend west as far as Hood Canal" (emphasis added).
  61. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, figures 2 and 3; Vorlage:Harvnb, p. 6.
  62. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, p.15.
  63. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb (Wildcat Lake map).
  64. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, p. 2, see Figures 3 and 10.
  65. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, sec 5.4, p. 13,553, and various plates. Also observed by Vorlage:Harvnb, Vorlage:Harvnb (from which the map above is taken), and others.
  66. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb.
  67. ↑ And further amplified by Vorlage:Harvnb and Vorlage:Harvnb.
  68. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, p.588.
  69. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, p. 46.
  70. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb (SIM 3060)
  71. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, p. sec, 6.1.
  72. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, p. 11.
  73. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, §5 and figure 17.
  74. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb.
  75. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb. See also Vorlage:Harvnb, sec. 6.1 (p. 13,558).
  76. ↑ The Quaternary Fault and Fold Database, citing lack of consensus, ignores the eastern part.
  77. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb; Vorlage:Harvnb, see figure 4, and compare the differences in cross-sections A-A' (west) and B-B' (east) in figure 17.
  78. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, sec. 6.3.
  79. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb (abstract); Vorlage:Harvnb (abstract); Vorlage:Harvnb, figure 3.
  80. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, sec. 5.4.
  81. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb.
  82. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, figure 18.
  83. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, p. 5579.
  84. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb.
  85. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb (OFR 2010-4, Lilliwaup), p. 4.
  86. ↑ See USGS Fault Database, #562a and #562b
  87. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb; Vorlage:Harvnb.
  88. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, p. 1.
  89. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, pp. 13—15, and figure 4.
  90. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb (OFR 2007-1).
  91. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, p. 16; Vorlage:Harvnb, pp. 1, 15.
  92. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb.
  93. ↑ Figure 64 of Vorlage:Harvnb (USGS OFR 99-0311) shows additional dates of various co-seismic events. See also Vorlage:Harvnb.
  94. ↑ See Cushman Dam No. 1 and Cushman Dam No. 2.
  95. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, p. 1, and see Figure 2.
  96. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, pp. 99, 131, and figure 4-19.
  97. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb (OFR 99-311), figures 46—50. See seismic maps.
  98. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, figures 3 and 4.
  99. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, p.27,472.
  100. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb. Download the map and see the aeromagnetic anomaly. Additional aeromagnetic and gravitational imagery of the Olympia and other structures available on the Summit Lake geological map.
  101. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, p. 1308.
  102. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb.
  103. ↑ E.g., Vorlage:Harvnb (Summit Lake map).
  104. ↑ Geologic Map Vorlage:Harvnb (East Olympia).
  105. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb; Vorlage:Harvnb.
  106. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, pp. 10,376, 10,380.
  107. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, plate 2.
  108. ↑ See the USGS Fault Database, "Faults near The Dalles".
  109. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb; Vorlage:Harvnb, p. 1308 and generally.
  110. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb (Summit Lake map).
  111. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb.
  112. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, p. 4; Vorlage:Harvnb, p. 330.
  113. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, Table 1, p. 7.
  114. ↑ See report from the Washington State Department of Transportation for the economic costs when flooding closed the freeeway for just several days.
  115. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, Table 1, p. 7. 40 miles would include the combined Doty—Salzer Creek fault plus a 15 mile extension west to South Bend, on Willapa Bay. Vorlage:Harvtxt, without identifying it, associated the Doty Fault with notable gravity and aeromagnetic anomalies (Plates 1 and 2) that extend towards Willapa Bay.
  116. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, Plate 1.
  117. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb (Map I-1613).
  118. ↑ Geologic Map Vorlage:Harvnb (Southwest Quadrant).
  119. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb.
  120. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb; Vorlage:Harvnb.
  121. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb; Vorlage:Harvnb, p. 10,179.
  122. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, figure 3.
  123. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, figure 13, pp. 15—16.
  124. ↑ Geological Map Vorlage:Harvnb (North Bend).
  125. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb (OFR 99-514, "Snoqualmie Pass"); Vorlage:Harvnb (Snoqualmie Quadrangle).
  126. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, p. 19,537.
  127. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, figure 48; Vorlage:Harvnb, p. 4 and figure 3.
  128. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, p. 10,166. That Glacier Peak might have some kind of structural connection with Mount Rainier and Mount St. Helens was first reported by Vorlage:Harvtxt.
  129. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, p. 10,155.
  130. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, figure 2.
  131. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, figure 7, and pp. 10,380—10,382.
  132. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, figure 8; see also Vorlage:Harvnb figure 44a and discussion through out.
  133. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, p. 10,380.
  134. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, pp. 10,390, 10,382, and figure 8.
  135. ↑ Geologic Map Vorlage:Harvnb (Snoqualmie).
  136. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, p. 13,557.
  137. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb (abstract).
  138. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, p. 13,557.
  139. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb (abstract); Vorlage:Harvnb (abstract).
  140. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb.
  141. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb; Vorlage:Harvnb.
  142. ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb, pp. 336, 341, 348; Geologic Map Vorlage:Harvnb (Fall City).
  143. ↑ E.g., Vorlage:Harvnb, Figure 1, p. 114;
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