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Vorlage:Importartikel/Wartung-2023-06
N. Sanson's remarkable 1656 map of the northwestern parts of South America , Lake Parima (Parime), and the route to El Dorado.

Lake Parime oder Lake Parima (lat.: Parime Lacus) ist ein mythischer See in Südamerika. Da er als Standort der ebenfalls legendären Stadt El Dorado (Manoa) galt, wurde er von europäischen Entdeckern heftig gesucht. Wiederholte Versuche scheiterten jedoch und er wurde zusammen mit der sagenhaften Goldstadt als Mythos abgetan. Die Suche nach Lake Parime veranlasste die Entdecker jedoch die Flüsse und Landformen des südlichen Venezuela, nördlichen Brasilien und südwestlichen Guyana zu kartieren, bevor im frühen 19. Jahrhundert letztendlich die Existenz des Sees gänzlich wiederlegt war. Einige Entdecker schlugen vor, dass die saisonalen Überflutungen der Rupununi Savannah für den Mythos verantwortlich waren. Neuere geologische Untersuchungen lassen vermuten, dass es einen See im Norden von Brasilien gegeben haben könnte, der jedoch irgendwann im 18. Jahrhundert ausgetrocknet ist. Sowohl „Manoa“ (Arawak language) als auch „Parime“ (Carib language) haben möglicherweise die bedeutung „Großer See“.[1][2]

Zwei andere mythische Seen, Lake Xarayes (Xaraies, Lake Eupana)[3][4][5][6] und Lake Cassipa,[1][7] werden ebenfalls oft auf frühen Karten von Südamerika dargestellt.

Entdeckungsversuche[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]

Walter Raleigh, 1595[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]

1599 map by Walter Raleigh and Theodor de Bry (ed.), describing Lake Parime as "a 200 mi long salt sea with islands in it". Raleigh explains: "It is called Parime by the cannibals, while the Yaos call it Foponowini".

Sir Walter Raleigh began the exploration of the Guianas in earnest in 1594 and described the city of Manoa, which he believed to be the legendary city of El Dorado, as being located on Lake Parime far up the Orinoco River in Venezuela.[8] Much of his exploration is documented in his books The Discoverie of the Large, Rich, and Bewtiful Empyre of Guiana,[7] published first in 1596, and The Discovery of Guiana, and the Journal of the Second Voyage Thereto, published in 1606.[9] How much of Raleigh's work is true and how much is fabricated remains unclear:[10] His account indicates that he only succeeded in navigating up the Orinoco as far as Angostura, (what is now Ciudad Bolívar) and did not come close to the supposed location of Lake Parime.[11] Raleigh says of the lake:

„Ich habe“[12]

According to Raleigh, the lake itself was the source of the gold possessed by the people of Manoa:

„Das Meiste Gold“[13]

Lawrence Kemys, 1596[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]

1596 entsandte Raleigh seinen Lieutenant, Lawrence Kemys, back to Guyana in the area of the Orinoco River, to gather more information about the lake and the golden city.[14] During his exploration of the coast between the Amazon and the Orinoco, Kemys mapped the location of Amerindian tribes and prepared geographical, geological and botanical reports of the country. Kemys described the coast of Guiana in detail in his Relation of the Second Voyage to Guiana (1596)[15] and says that indigenous people of Guiana traveled inland by canoe and land passages towards a large body of water on the shores of which he supposed was located Manoa, Golden City of El Dorado. One of these rivers leading south into the interior of Guiana was the Essequibo.[16] Kemys wrote that the Indians called this river "brother of the Orenoque [Orinoco]" and that this river of Essequibo, or Devoritia,

„liegt südlich“[17]

Karten[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]

Nieuwe caerte van het Wonderbaer ende Goudrjcke Landt Guiana by Jodocus Hondius (1598) shows an enormous Lake Parime. Manoa is shown on the northeastern shore. Mountains separate Lake Parime from Lake Cassipa.
1621 map by Willem Blaeu showing Lake Parime straddling the equator, with "Manoa al Dorada" on the north shore, just below Lake Cassipa.
Parime Lacus on a map by Hessel Gerritsz (1625). "Manoa, o el Dorado", appears on the northwestern corner of the lake.

As a result of Raleigh's work, maps began to appear depicting El Dorado and Lake Parime. One of the first was the elder Jodocus Hondius' Nieuwe Caerte van het Wonderbaer ende Goudrycke Landt Guiana, which was published in 1598. Hondius' map depicts an elongated Lake Parime south of the Orinoco River, with the majority of the lake positioned south of the equator, and with Manoa on the northern shore, towards the eastern half of the lake. Manoa is noted as "the greatest city in the entire world". Hondius' map was subsequently copied by Theodore de Bry and published in his popular Grands Voyages in 1599.[18] When Hondius published a completely revised edition of Mercator's Atlas in 1608,[19] it included a map of South America featuring Lake Parime with the majority of the lake located south of the equator, and with Manoa again along the northern shore, although not quite so far east.[20]

Cartographer Guillaume Delisle was among the first to cast doubts on the lake's existence. In a map of Guyana printed in 1730, he included an outline of the lake, then replaced it with the notation: "It is in these regions that most authors place the Lake Parime and the City of Manoa of El Dorado."[21][22] Delisle reluctantly included a lake in southwestern Guyana on several subsequent maps, but did not name it or the city of Manoa.[23]

The lake was printed on maps throughout the 17th and 18th centuries and up until the early 19th century. Some cartographers and naturalists moved the lake more to the southeast of the Orinoco River and north of the Amazon river, often situating it south of the mountains that border Venezuela, Guiana, and Brazil. However, by the late 18th century, failure to confirm the lake's existence led to its removal from most maps.[24] A 1792 map of the Rio Branco by José Joaquin Freire shows no sign of a lake, although there is now a Parimé River.[25]

A 1650 Dutch copy of a French map by Nicolas Sanson, showing Lake Parime. "Manoa el Dorado" appears on the northwest corner of the lake. Lake Cassipa is to the north of the city.

17th century explorations[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]

Thomas Roe, 1611[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]

In early 1611 Sir Thomas Roe, on a mission to the West Indies for Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales, sailed his 200-ton ship, the Lion's Claw, some 320 km up the Amazon,[26] then took a party of canoes up the Oyapock River in search of Lake Parime, negotiating thirty-two rapids and traveling about 100 mi|km before they ran out of food and had to turn back.[27][28][29][30]

Raleigh and Kemys, 1617[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]

Im März 1617, Raleigh and Kemys returned to Venezuela in search of Lake Parime and El Dorado. The expedition failed to uncover any new evidence of the lake and ended with the death of Raleigh's son Walter and the suicide of Captain Kemys.[31]

Samuel Fritz, 1689[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]

Samuel Fritz's 1707 map showing the Amazon and the Orinoco, on either side of Lake Parime.

Between 1689 and 1691 the Jesuit priest Samuel Fritz traveled along the Amazon and its tributaries, preparing a detailed map at the request of the Royal Audiencia of Quito.[32] Fritz was skeptical of the existence of a golden city, but thought that Lake Parime probably did exist, and included it prominently in his map.[33][34]

18th century explorations[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]

Nicholas Horstman, 1739[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]

In November 1739, Nicholas Horstman (sometimes spelled "Hortsman"), a surgeon from Hildesheim who was secretly commissioned by the Dutch Governor of Guiana (Laurens Storm van's Gravesande), traveled up the Essequibo River accompanied by two Dutch soldiers and four Indian guides.[35] Im April 1741 one of the Indian guides returned reporting that in 1740 Horstman had crossed over to the Rio Branco and descended it to its confluence with the Rio Negro. Rumors at the time held that Horstman had planted the Dutch Flag on the shores of Lake Parime, however later explorers determined that he had in fact visited Lake Amucu on the North Rupununi. Nothing further was heard until late November, 1742 when the other guides returned, reporting that Horstman and one of the Dutch soldiers had spent four months in a village on the Pará River, where they were discovered and arrested by the Portuguese authorities, and that they had "entered into the Portuguese service". In August 1743 Charles-Marie de La Condamine met and conversed with Horstman,[36] who appeared to be living freely with the Portuguese in Pará, and Horstman gave him his fragmentary diary, titled "Journey which I made to the Imaginary Lake of Parima, or of Gold, in the Year 1739." Horstman states that on May 8, 1740,

Rigobert Bonne and Guilleme Raynal's 1780 map of Northern South America, showing a much smaller Lake Parime. Neither Manoa nor Lake Cassipa are shown.
D'Anville's 1795 map shows both Lake Amucu and Lake Parime; the latter is portrayed as a source of the Orinoco as well as the Rio Branco. A very small Lake Cassipa is also shown, just south of the Orinoco.

Vorlage:Quote

Horstman also gave La Condamine a remarkably accurate hand-drawn map of his route from the coast through the interior of Northern Brazil.[36] La Condamine then gave the map to the French geographer Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville. Lake Amucu was incorporated into his Carte de l'Amerique Meridionale in 1748.[37]

Manuel Centurion, 1740[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]

1740, Don Manuel Centurion, Governor of Santo Tomé de Guayana de Angostura del Orinoco in Venezuela, hearing a report from an Indian regarding Lake Parima, embarked on a journey up the Caura River and the Paragua River.[38] According to Humboldt: Vorlage:Quote

During his expedition, "several hundred persons perished miserably" and Centurion failed to confirm the existence of either a lake or a city.[1]

Charles Marie de La Condamine, 1743[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]

Between June and September 1743 the scientist and geographer Charles de La Condamine traveled from Quito to the Atlantic coast via the Amazon River, charting its course and making scientific observations. In his subsequent account of this journey, Abbreviated Relation of a Journey made in the Interior of South America (1745), Condamine discussed the existence of Lake Parime, stating that although the Indians had extracted "small flakes" of gold from the rivers, these stories had been greatly exaggerated to concoct the myth of a golden city:

Vorlage:Quote

During his journey La Condamine met and conversed with Nicholas Horstman and determined that he had found Lake Amucu in approximately the location of the reputed Lake Parime. On the map of his own travels included in his book, La Condamine placed a small lake as a source of the Takutu River, designating it only "Lac".[36]

19th century explorations[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]

Humboldt and Bonpland, 1799–1803[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]

Humboldt and Bonpland in Ecuador, early 1802.

Alexander von Humboldt and Aimé Bonpland considered Lake Amucu in the North Rupununi, which had been visited by the German surgeon Nicholas Horstman, to be the Lake Parime described by Sir Walter Raleigh.[39] In his Relation historique du voyage aux régions équinoxiales du nouveau continent (1825), Humboldt indicated that Lake Amucu was in the same location as the purported Lake Parime (or Roponowini) described to Raleigh, and was also a "large inland sea" when flooded; he noted that: Vorlage:Quote

Charles Waterton, 1812[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]

In 1812 Charles Waterton independently came to a similar conclusion and proposed that seasonal flooding of the Rupununi savannah could be the famed Lake Parime. Waterton wrote: Vorlage:Quote

Robert Schomburgk, 1840[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]

In 1840 explorer Robert Hermann Schomburgk visited Pirara on the edge of Lake Amucu.[40][41][42] He stated that this area of flooded Rupununi which linked the Amazon and Essequibo River drainages was most likely to be the Lake Parime:[43]

Vorlage:Quote

A 1781 map has replaced Lake Parime with "Lake Amicu, overgrown with bulrushes". To the north is "the supposed Lake of Cassipa".
John Pinkerton's 1818 map of northern South America, one of the last maps to show Lake Parime (here named "Lake Parima or White Sea"). The existence of Manoa or El Dorado had by now been disproved, and most other maps of this period do not show Lake Parime.

Jacob van Heuvel, 1844[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]

In 1844 the American author Jacob Adrien van Heuvel, a graduate of Yale and a law student, published an account of his travels in Guiana in which he investigated evidence for the existence of El Dorado and Lake Parima. The book described a journey to Guiana he had made in 1819–20 during which he questioned a "Charibe chief" named Mahanerwa about the existence of the lake. Mahanerwa drew a map in the sand, and stated that a large body of water lay southeast of the Orinoco. Van Heuvel superimposed this drawing onto John Arrowsmith's 1840 map of British Guyana, claiming that much of this body of water, some 250 mi|km in length, was likely a "temporary inundation" but that "water must fill the savannah" for half the year at least and probably more. Van Heuvel considered Lake Parima and Lake Cassipa to be identical.[44]

In his 1848 edition of Raleigh's The Discovery of the Large, Rich, and Beautiful Empire of Guiana, Schomburgk dismissed Van Heuvel's propositions:

Vorlage:Quote

In spite of well-publicized evidence disproving the existence of Lake Parime, the 1853 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica described the lake under the entry for "America:"

Vorlage:Quote

Evidence for an ancient lake[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]

Nhamini-wi and the Lake of Milk[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]

The Tucano and Piratapuia tribes of the upper Rio Negro tell a story of the Nhamini-wi (the "narrow path"). The Nhamini-wi was a pre-Columbian road that traveled from the mountains in the west where the "house of the night" was located.[45] The trail began at axpeko-dixtara, or the "lake of milk" (So-called because of inorganic sediments carried by the river).[46] Alfred Russel Wallace mentions this peculiar coloration in "On the Rio Negro," a paper read at the 13 June 1853 meeting of the Royal Geographical Society, in which he says: "[The Rio Branco] is white to a remarkable degree, its waters being actually milky in appearance." Humboldt attributed the color to the presence of silicates in the water, principally mica and talc.[1]) in the east. In 1977 artist and explorer Roland Stevenson found ruins north of the Rio Negro in the Uaupés River basin that are believed to be the remnants of the Nhamini-wi.[47] Led by indigenous guides Stevenson found old and collapsed stone walls that were dotted every twenty kilometers along an east-to-west line.

Stevenson followed the vestiges of the road eastward to find the lake and ended up in Roraima, Brazil, in the plains of Boa Vista. Upon examining the region Brazilian geologists Gert Woeltje and Frederico Guimarães Cruz along with Roland Stevenson[48] found that on all the surrounding hillsides a horizontal line appears at a uniform level approximately 120|m above sea level.[45] This line registers the water level of an extinct lake which existed until relatively recent times. Researchers who studied it found that the lake's previous diameter measured 400|km|mi and its area was about 80000 km². About 700 years ago this giant lake began to drain due to epeirogenic movement and by the early 19th century it had dried up.[49]

Geological evidence[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]

Geologic research suggests that, thousands of years ago, conditions existed for the formation of a lake. Sedimentary rock in this region, known as the Takutu Basin or the Takutu Formation, dates back to the late Paleozoic,[50] roughly 250 million years ago, and the basin connected with the Atlantic via the Takutu Graben.[51] The geologic history of the Takutu Graben is characterized by one phase of volcanic activity and three depositional phases of sedimentary rocks. Rifting (due to divergent tectonic plate movements) occurred in a lake or delta environment in the Late Triassic to Early Jurassic periods, between 200 million and one hundred and fifty million years ago.[52] Starting around 66.000 years ago, sea level rise and more humid conditions created flooded zones north of the confluence of the Rio Negro and the Solimões River, in what is now Roraima.[53]

Seasonal flooding was probably misidentified as a lake by some observers. The drainage system of the Rupununi Savannahs is unable to carry a high volume of surface runoff and as a result, most rivers flood in the wet season. In a few places ground water drainage is impeded by clay, and ponds and lakes persist for several months.[54][55]

1977 Brazilian geologists Gert Woeltje and Frederico Guimarães Cruz along with Roland Stevenson,[56] found that on all the surrounding hillsides a horizontal line appears at a uniform level approximately 120 m above sea level.[57] This line registers the water level of an extinct lake which existed until relatively recent times. Researchers who studied it found that the lake's previous diameter measured 400 km and its area was about 80000 km². About 700 years ago this giant lake began to drain due to tectonic movement. Im Juni 1690, a massive earthquake opened a bedrock fault, forming a rift or a graben that permitted the water to flow into the Rio Branco.[58] By the early 19th century it had dried up completely.[59]

Archeological evidence: Pedra Pintada[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]

Pedra Pintada in Roraima, Brazil

Roraima's well-known Pedra Pintada is the site of numerous pictograms and Petroglyphe dating to between 9000 and 12000 years ago[60] or less than 4000 years ago.[61] Designs 10 m above the ground on the sheer exterior face of the rock were probably painted by people standing in canoes on the surface of the now-vanished lake.[62][63] Gold, which was reported to be washed up on the shores of the lake, was most likely carried by streams and rivers out of the mountains where it can be found today.[64]

Additional maps[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]

Einzelnachweise[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]

  1. ↑ a b c d Alexander von Humboldt, Personal Narrative of Travels to the Equinoctial Regions of America During the Years 1799–1804, (chapter 25). Henry G. Bohn, London, 1853.
  2. ↑ Catherine Alès, Michel Pouyllau, „La Conquête de l'inutile. Les géographies imaginaires de l'Eldorado,“ (in French) Homme. 1992, 122-124: S. 271-308.
  3. ↑ Laguna de los Xarayes in Rare Maps
  4. ↑ Hermann Moll, Map of Uruguay, Paraguay, Southern Brazil and Northern Argentina (El Dorado), 1701
  5. ↑ Jodocus Hondius, America Meridionalis, 1620
  6. ↑ John Speed, Map of America, 1626
  7. ↑ a b Sir Walter Raleigh, The Discoverie of the Large, Rich, and Bewtiful Empyre of Guiana (1596; repr., Amsterdam: Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, 1968)
  8. ↑ Marc Aronson, Sir Walter Ralegh and the Quest for El Dorado, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2000. ISBN 039584827X
  9. ↑ Sir Walter Raleigh, The Discovery of Guiana, and the Journal of the Second Voyage Thereto (1606; repr., London: Cassell, 1887)
  10. ↑ Paul R. Sellin, Treasure, Treason and the Tower: El Dorado and the Murder of Sir Walter Raleigh. Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2011.
  11. ↑ Referenzfehler: Ungültiges <ref>-Tag; kein Text angegeben für Einzelnachweis mit dem Namen Discovery.
  12. ↑ I have been assured by such of the Spaniards as have seen Manoa, the imperial city of Guiana, which the Spaniards call El Dorado, that for the greatness, for the riches, and for the excellent seat, it far exceedeth any of the world, at least of so much of the world as is known to the Spanish nation. It is founded upon a lake of salt water of 200 leagues long, like unto Mare Caspium. Raleigh.
  13. ↑ Most of the gold which they made in plates and images was not severed from the stone, but on the lake of Manoa, and in a multitude of other rivers, they gathered it in grains of perfect gold and in pieces as big as small stones. Raleigh.
  14. ↑ "Raleigh's Second Expedition to Guiana."
  15. ↑ John Knox Laughton, "Kemys, Lawrence" Dictionary of National Biography, 1885–1900, Volume 30.
  16. ↑ Renzo Duin, Wayana Socio-Political Landscapes: Multi-Scalar Regionality and Temporality in Guiana, doctoral dissertation, University of Florida: Gainesville; 2009.
  17. ↑ lyeth Southerly into the land, and from the mouth of it unto the head, they pass in twenty days: then taking their provision they carry it on their shoulders one days journey: afterwards they return for their canoas, and bear them likewise to the side of a lake, which the Iaos call Roponowini, the Charibes, Parime: which is of such bigness, that they know no difference between it and the main sea. There be infinite numbers of canoas in this lake, and (as I suppose) it is no other than that, whereon Manoa standeth. Lawrence Keymis, A Relation of the Second Voyage to Guiana, Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, 1596.
  18. ↑ Theodore de Bry, "The map of 'the powerful and gold-bearing kingdom of Guiana", 1599.
  19. ↑ Jodocus Hondius, "Typus Orbis Terrarum", Amsterdam, 1608.
  20. ↑ "Eliane Dotson, Lake Parime and the Golden City".
  21. ↑ Original French: "C'est dans ces quartiers que la pluspart des autheurs placent le Lac de Parime et la Ville de Manoa del Dorado."
  22. ↑ Renzo Duin, Wayana Socio-Political Landscapes: Multi-Scalar Regionality and Temporality in Guiana PhD dissertation, University of Florida, Gainesville, 2009; p. 70.
  23. ↑ Guillaume De L'Isle and Philippe Buache: Carte D'Amerique Dressee pour l'usage du Roy en 1722...Et augmentee desa Nouvelles Decovertes en 1763.
  24. ↑ a b Justin Winsor, Spanish Explorations and Settlements in North America from the Fifteenth to the Seventeenth Century: Volume 2 of Narrative and critical history of America, Houghton, Mifflin, 1886; p. 589.
  25. ↑ Jose Joaquin Freire, "Map of the Branco or Parimé River and of the Caratirimani, Uararicapará, Majari, Tacutú and Mahú Rivers," 1792
  26. ↑ Alírio Cardoso, "The conquest of Maranhão and Atlantic disputes in the geopolitics of the Iberian Union (1596–1626)," Rev. Bras. Hist. vol.31 no.61, São Paulo, 2011.
  27. ↑ James Seay Dean, Tropics Bound: Elizabeth's Seadogs on the Spanish Main, The History Press, 2013. ISBN 0752496689
  28. ↑ James Alexander Williamson, English colonies in Guiana and on the Amazon, 1604–1668, Oxford, 1923: S. 54.
  29. ↑ Stanley Lane-Poole, "Roe, Thomas"; Dictionary of National Biography, 1885–1900, Volume 49
  30. ↑ Michael J. Brown, Itinerant Ambassador: The Life of Sir Thomas Roe, University Press of Kentucky, 2015: S. 15. ISBN 0813162270
  31. ↑ "Sir Walter Raleigh," NNDB Database
  32. ↑ John Hemming, Red Gold: The Conquest of the Brazilian Indians, 1500–1760, Harvard University Press, 1978. ISBN 0674751078
  33. ↑ Samuel Fritz, Journal of the Travels and Labours of Father Samuel Fritz in the River of the Amazons Between 1686 and 1723, edited by George Edmundson; Issue 51 of Works issued by the Hakluyt Society, ISSN 0072-9396; Hakluyt Society, 1922.
  34. ↑ Jesuit Camila Loureiro Dias, "Maps and Political Discourse: The Amazon River of Father Samuel Fritz," The Americas, Vol. 69, Nr. 1, Juli 2012: S. 95–116.
  35. ↑ C. A. Harris and John Abraham Jacob De Villiers, Storm Van's Gravesande: The Rise of British Guiana, Compiled from his Works, Hakluyt Society, 1911; University of Michigan.
  36. ↑ a b c Charles Marie de La Condamine, Relation abrégée d'un voyage fait dans l'intérieur de l'Amérique méridionale: depuis la côte de la mer du Sud, jusqu'aux côtes du Brésil et de la Guyane, en descendant la rivière des Amazones..., Jean-Edme Dufour and Philippe Roux, 1778; University of Lausanne [French]
  37. ↑ Neldson Marcolin, "Mapa feito na França em 1748 delineou novas fronteiras do Brasil continental depois do Tratado de Tordesilhas", Espelhos do Mundo, Ed. 225, Nov. 2014. [Portuguese]
  38. ↑ Edward M. Pierce, The Cottage Cyclopedia of History and Biography: A Copious Dictionary of Memorable Persons, Events, Places and Things, with Notices of the Present State of the Principal Countries and Nations of the Known World, and a Chronological View of American History, Case, Lockwood, 1867, Harvard University
  39. ↑ Graham Watkins, Pete Oxford, and Reneé Bish, "Raleigh's El Dorado", from Rupununi: Rediscovering a Lost World, Earth in Focus Editions, 2010
  40. ↑ Robert Hermann Schomburgk, "Sources of the Takutu in British Guiana, in the year 1842", Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London, Vol. 13, pp 18–75, 1843
  41. ↑ Peter Rivière, ed. The Guiana Travels of Robert Schomburgk, 1835–1844: Explorations on behalf of the Royal Geographical Society, 1835–1839, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2006: S. 274. ISBN 0904180867
  42. ↑ Robert Hermann Schomburgk, "Pirara and Lake Amucu, The Site of Eldorado", printed by Georges Barnard, from Twelve Views in the Interior of Guiana, 1840.
  43. ↑ Graham Watkins, Pete Oxford, and Reneé Bish. Rupununi: Rediscovering a Lost World, Earth in Focus Editions; November 1, 2010]. ISBN 0984168648.
  44. ↑ Jacob Adrien Van Heuvel, El Dorado: Being a Narrative of the Circumstances which Gave Rise to Reports, in the Sixteenth Century, of the Existence of a Rich and Splendid City in South America, to which that Name was Given, and which Led to Many Enterprises in Search of it; Including a Defence of Sir Walter Raleigh, in Regard to the Relations Made by Him Respecting It, and a Nation of Female Warriors, in the Vicinity of the Amazon, in the Narrative of His Expedition to the Oronoke in 1595, J. Winchester, 1844.
  45. ↑ a b Dalton Delfini Maziero, "El Dorado Em busca dos antigos mistérios Amazônicos," Arqueologiamericana. [Portuguese]
  46. ↑ Comparison between white and black waters. Archiviert vom Original am 16. Juli 2011; abgerufen am 10. Februar 2015.
  47. ↑ Roland Stevenson, Uma Luz nos Mistérios Amazônicos. Manaus: SUFRAMA, 1994. [Portuguese]
  48. ↑ Roland Stevenson, "Parime: Finding the Legendary Lake."
  49. ↑ Jeff Shea, The March 2013 Paragua River Expedition: Penetration into The Meseta de Ichún of Venezuela, Explorers Club Report #60.
  50. ↑ A. J. Pedreira et al, (2003), "Bacias Sedimentares Paleozóicas e Meso-Cenozóicas Interiores," (Paleozoic and Meso-Cenozoic Sedimentary Basins) in Geologia, Tectônica e Recursos Minerais do Brasil. A. Bizzi, C. Schobbenhaus, R. M. Vidotti e J. H. Gonçalves (eds.) CPRM, Brasília, 2003. [Portuguese]
  51. ↑ C. D. Frailey et al, "A proposed Pleistocene/Holocene lake in the Amazon Basin and its significance to Amazonian geology and biogeography." Acta Amazonica, vol. 18: S. 119-143, 1988.
  52. ↑ "The Takutu Graben," The Guyana Chronicle Online, 2. Juni 2012
  53. ↑ Emilio Alberto Amaral Soares, "Depósitos pleistocenos da região de confluência dos rios Negro e Solimões, Amazonas," Doctoral thesis, University of São Paulo, Institute of Geosciences, 2007. [Portuguese]
  54. ↑ Hans ter Steege, Gerold Zondervan, "A Preliminary Analysis of Large-Scale Forest Inventory Data of the Guiana Shield," unpublished research.
  55. ↑ Alberto V. Veloso, "On the footprints of a major Brazilian Amazon earthquake," An. Acad. Bras. Ciênc., vol. 86, no.3 Rio de Janeiro, Sept. 2014.
  56. ↑ Roland Stevenson: Parime: Finding the Legendary Lake. In: Netium. Abgerufen am 15. Februar 2019.
  57. ↑ Dalton Delfini Maziero: El Dorado Em busca dos antigos mistérios Amazônicos. In: Arqueologiamericana. Abgerufen am 15. Februar 2019.
  58. ↑ Alberto V. Veloso: On the footprints of a major Brazilian Amazon earthquake. In: An. Acad. Bras. Ciênc. vol. 86, 3, Rio de Janeiro, September 2014: S. 1115–1129. |doi=10.1590/0001-3765201420130340
  59. ↑ Jeff Shea: The March 2013 Paragua River Expedition: Penetration into The Meseta de Ichún of Venezuela. In: Explorers Club Report #60. März 2013, S. 110, abgerufen am 15. Februar 2019.
  60. ↑ D. S. Hammond, "Socio-economic Aspects of Guiana Shield Forest Use," in Tropical Forests of the Guiana Shield Ancient Forests in a Modern World, Edited by D.S. Hammond, CABI Publishing, pp. 381–480.
  61. ↑ Ribeiro, Pedro A. Mentz et al. "Projeto Arqueológico de Salvamento no Territorio Federal de Roraima" (1986, 1987 1989) Cepa (Santa Cruz do Sul) 13 (16): 5–48; 14 (17): 1–81; 16 (19): 5-48-
  62. ↑ N. J. Reis et al, "Pedra Pintada, RR – Ícone do Lago Parime." In M. Winge, ed. Sítios Geológicos e Paleontológicos do Brasil, Brasília: CPRM, 2009; vol. 2, p 515. [Portuguese]
  63. ↑ J. A. Fonseca, "A Misteriosa Pedra Pintada (Roraima)", RCP Brasil [Portuguese]
  64. ↑ "Significant gold deposits in Roraima Basin – study," Stabroek News, March 22, 2009

[[Category:Fictional lakes|Parime]] [[Category:Cartography]] [[Category:Exploration of South America]] [[Category:Mythical lost cities and towns]] [[Category:Colonial Brazil]] [[Category:Geography of Guyana]] [[Category:Geography of Roraima]] [[Category:Geography of Venezuela]] [[Category:History of Guyana]] [[Category:History of Roraima]] [[Category:History of Venezuela]] [[Category:Lakes of Brazil|Parime]] [[Category:Maps of the history of the Americas]] [[Category:Fictional locations in South America]]

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