Benutzer:Shi Annan/Außenbeziehungen Turkmenistan
Die Außenbeziehungen Turkmenistan beschreiben die internationalen Beziehungen Turkmenistans. 1995 wurde Turkmenistans Erklärung der „dauerhaften Neutralität“ („permanent neutrality“) von den Vereinten Nationen formal anerkannt. Der ehamalig Präsident Saparmyrat Nyýazow erklärte, dass es die Neutralität Turkmenistan nicht erlauben würde, an multi-nationalen Verteidigungsorganisationen teilzunehmen, jedoch militärische Unterstützung erlaubt. Die neutral foreign policy has an important place in the country's constitution. Although the Government of Turkmenistan claims to favour trade with and export to the United States, and Turkey, its single largest commercial partner is China, which buys the vast bulk of Turkmen natural gas via the Central Asia–China gas pipeline. Turkmenistan has significant commercial relationships with Russia and Iran and growing cross-border trade with Afghanistan. The Government of Turkmenistan often appears to use the conflicting interests of these regional powers as a means to extract concessions, especially on energy issues.
Internationale Kontroversen[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]
Signing of the Caspian Sea convention in 2018 brought only partial resolution of boundary disputes in the Caspian. Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan have disputes over water-sharing. Turkmenistan shares a long border with Afghanistan, a principal producer of heroin and opium. As a result, a large volume of narcotics are trafficked through Turkmenistan on their way to lucrative markets in Europe and Russia.[1]
Natural resources[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]
Turkmenistan is rich in natural gas, and currently sells most of its gas to China. Turkmenistan unilaterally cut off exports of pipeline natural gas to Iran in 2017 over a payment arrears dispute. Russia ceased buying gas from Turkmenistan in 2016, but resumed small purchases of pipeline gas in 2019. Afghanistan buys liquid petroleum gas, shipped by rail to Ymamnazar and Torghundi for onward delivery by truck. Pakistan provides Turkmenistan warm water as well as Iran and Russia.
Turkmenistan is a partner country of the EU INOGATE energy programme, which has four key topics: enhancing energy security, convergence of member state energy markets on the basis of EU internal energy market principles, supporting sustainable energy development, and attracting investment for energy projects of common and regional interest.[2]
Organisations[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]
Turkmenistan is a member of the United Nations, the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, the Economic Cooperation Organization, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, the Islamic Development Bank, Asian Development Bank, European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the Food and Agriculture Organization, and the International Organization of Turkic Culture.
Turkmenistan maintains permanent representatives to the United Nations offices in New York City, Vienna, and Geneva.
The United Nations maintains a permanent representation staffed by a resident coordinator along with representatives of some UN agencies in Ashgabat. The Asian Development Bank, European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, and European Union have missions in Ashgabat, as well.
Diplomatic relations[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]
List of countries which Turkmenistan maintains diplomatic relations with:[3]
Bilateral relations[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]
| Country | Formal Relations Began | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Vorlage:Flag | 21 February 1992 |
See Afghanistan–Turkmenistan relations Afghanistan has an embassy in Ashgabat and a consulate in Mary. Turkmenistan has an embassy in Kabul plus consulates in Herat and Mazar-i-Sharif.[4][5] The rise of India as an economic giant and its increasing energy needs make Turkmenistan and Central Asia energy markets of choice for that country and also China. The Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India pipeline (TAPI) has been one of the most important regional initiatives to be undertaken by these countries. The agreement to build the pipeline to transport Turkmen gas to Afghanistan and Pakistan and beyond to India was signed in 2010. In addition, Afghanistan depends on Turkmenistan for meeting a large part of the country's electricity needs. At present, Afghanistan imports more than 320 million kilowatt hours of electricity every year from Turkmenistan. In 2011, Turkmenistan agreed to build a 150-km extension to a railway line to connect the rail line to Serhetabat to Andkhoy in Faryab province, Afghanistan. In February 2018, the existing rail line between Serhetabat and Torghundi in Afghanistan was restored to service.[6][7] This line is planned to be extended to Herat, where it could potentially connect to a rail line under construction from Khaf, Iran.[8] The line to Andkhoy went into service in January 2021. In 2013, work began on a link from Kerki via Ymamnazar on the Turkmen-Afghan border to Aqina in Andkhoy District. This link was opened in November 2016.[9] It was extended 38 km to Andkhoy in January 2021,[10] and is intended eventually to become part of a railway corridor through northern Afghanistan, linking it via Sherkhan Bandar, Mazar-i-Sharif and Kunduz to Tajikistan. As of 1 April 2011, there were 44 enterprises with Afghan assets in Turkmenistan. Though Turkmenistan has not recognized the Taliban's state, the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, it has facilitated the Taliban's appointment of diplomats to the Afghan Embassy in Ashgabat. The current chargé d'affaires is Fazal Muhammad Sabir, appointed in March 2022.[11][12][13] |
| Vorlage:Flag | 24 March 1994 |
Both countries established diplomatic relations on March 24, 1994.[14] |
| Vorlage:Flag | 9 October 1992 | See Armenia–Turkmenistan relations
|
| Vorlage:Flag | 16 October 1992 | See Austria–Turkmenistan relations
Turkmenistan has an embassy in Vienna, which doubles as the permanent mission to United Nations agencies in Vienna. |
| Vorlage:Flag | 9 June 1992 |
The two countries have embassies in each other's capitals. Despite close linguistic affinities (Turkmen and Azerbaijani are about 65 percent mutually intelligible), Turkmenistan and Azerbaijan suffer from a strained relationship, in part because Turkmenistan is majority Sunni and Azerbaijan is majority Shi'a. Nonetheless the two countries have begun to cooperate more in commercial spheres, most notably with signing of a memorandum in 2020 on joint exploitation of the cross-boundary Serdar oil field in the Caspian. |
| Vorlage:Flag | 21 January 1993 | See Belarus–Turkmenistan relations
Roughly 12,000 to 13,000 Turkmen university students are matriculated annually in Belarusian institutions of higher education. |
| Vorlage:Flag | 11 September 1996 |
The countries established diplomatic relations on 11 September 1996.[15] |
| Vorlage:Flag | 6 April 1995 |
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 6 April 1995. |
| Vorlage:Flag | 6 January 1992 | See China-Turkmenistan relations
The two countries have embassies in each other's capitals. The relationship is dominated by China's position as the largest importer by far of natural gas from Turkmenistan, making China Turkmenistan's largest source of foreign exchange earnings. China offers free higher education to several hundred Turkmen students each year. |
| Vorlage:Flag | 2 July 1996 | See Croatia–Turkmenistan relations[15] |
| Vorlage:Flag | 4 July 2017 |
The countries established diplomatic relations on July 4, 2017.[14] |
| Vorlage:Flag | 13 October 2016 |
Both countries established diplomatic relations on October 13, 2016.[16] |
| Vorlage:Flag | 6 March 1992 | See France–Turkmenistan relations
Diplomatic relations were established with the March 6, 1992 signing of the Protocol. Turkmenistan has an embassy in Paris and France has an embassy in Ashgabat. The French construction company Bouygues, the second-largest in Turkmenistan, has signed many construction contracts. The French company Thales Alenia Space constructed the first space satellite TürkmenÄlem 52°E / MonacoSAT. |
| Vorlage:Flag | 8 July 1992 |
Georgia has an embassy in Ashgabat, and Turkmenistan has an embassy in Tbilisi.[5][4][17] |
| Vorlage:Flag | 6 March 1992 |
The two countries have embassies in each other's capitals. Turkmenistan have a consulate in Frankfurt am Main. Two German banks, Deutsche Bank and Commerzbank, have offices in Ashgabat, since much of Turkmenistan's foreign exchange accounts are held in those two German banks. Such German firms as Siemens and Claas have made significant sales of medical and agricultural equipment, respectively, to Turkmenistan. Turkmenistan Air offers scheduled service to Frankfurt am Main. |
| Vorlage:Flag | 11 June 1997 |
Both countries established diplomatic relations on June 11, 1997.[14] |
| Vorlage:Flag | 10 July 1996 |
The Vatican maintains a nunciature in Ashgabat, although the nuncio is resident in Ankara. The Turkmen ambassador in Rome is multiple-accredited, including to the Holy See. |
| Vorlage:Flag | 13 February 1997 |
Both countries established diplomatic relations on February 13, 1997.[14] |
| Vorlage:Flag | 20 April 1992 | See India-Turkmenistan relations
India and Turkmenistan have embassies in each other's capitals. Turkmenistan Airlines operates flights between Ashgabat and both New Delhi and Amritsar, which connect in Ashgabat to flights to London and Birmingham. India is a destination for medical tourism by middle-class Turkmen. To some degree the relationship is framed by Turkmenistan's desire to export natural gas to India via the Turkmenistan–Afghanistan–Pakistan–India Pipeline. |
| Vorlage:Flag | 18 February 1992 | See Iran–Turkmenistan relations
Iran and Turkmenistan have had relations since Turkmenistan's independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. Iran has an embassy in Ashgabat and a consulate in Mary. Turkmenistan has an embassy in Teheran and a consulate in Mashhad.[5] Iran was the second nation to recognize Turkmenistan as an independent nation.[4] Since then, the two countries have cooperated in the economic, infrastructure, and energy sectors. The $139 million Korpeje-Kurt Kui gas pipeline in western Turkmenistan and the $167 million Dostluk ("friendship" in Turkmen) Dam in the south of the country were built through a joint venture. The Caspian Sea territorial boundaries are a cause of tension between the two. Iran's Islamic theocracy and Turkmenistan's secular dictatorship also prevent the development of a closer friendship. |
| Vorlage:Flag | 8 October 1993 |
Israel has an embassy in Ashgabat. |
| Vorlage:Flag | 9 June 1992 |
Italy and Turkmenistan have embassies in each other's capitals. The Turkmen ambassador in Rome is also accredited to the United Nations agencies there, and to the Holy See. The relationship is dominated by the presence of Italian petroleum firm Eni, which operates oil wells in the Caspian Sea under a production sharing agreement. |
| Vorlage:Flag | 22 April 1992 |
Diplomatic relations between Japan and Turkmenistan were established in April 1992. Japan opened an embassy at Ashgabat in January 2005, and Turkmenistan opened an embassy in Tokyo in May 2013.[18] Japan is heavily involved in operation of the Oguz Han Engineering Technology University in Ashgabat. The Japan Bank for International Cooperation has financed several major industrial projects in Turkmenistan, including plants constructed with participation of Kawasaki and Sumitomo. |
| Vorlage:Flag | 5 October 1992 |
|
| Vorlage:Flag | 5 October 1992 | See Kyrgyzstan-Turkmenistan relations
The two countries have embassies in each other's capitals. |
| Vorlage:Flag | 8 December 1992 |
Libya maintains an economic and commercial office rather than an embassy in Ashgabat. |
| Vorlage:Flag | 17 May 1992 | See Malaysia-Turkmenistan relations
Turkmen-Malaysian relations mainly revolve around the work of the Malaysian state petroleum corporation, Petronas, which extracts petroleum condensate in the Caspian Sea. Turkmenistan Airlines offers scheduled service between Ashgabat and Kuala Lumpur. |
| Vorlage:Flag | 27 March 1992 |
|
| Vorlage:Flag | 21 June 1996 |
The countries established diplomatic relations on June 21, 1996.[14] |
| Vorlage:Flag | 10 May 1992 | See Pakistan–Turkmenistan relations
|
| Vorlage:Flag | 17 April 1992 |
|
| Vorlage:Flag | 29 September 1992 | See Poland–Turkmenistan relations |
| Vorlage:Flag | 22 November 1996 |
Qatar has an embassy in Ashgabat. Turkmenistan has no permanent diplomatic representation in Doha |
| Vorlage:Flag | 21 July 1992 |
The two countries have embassies in each other's capitals. Romania's primary interest is development of the Lapis Lazuli corridor, which would use Romanian seaports on the Black Sea. |
| Vorlage:Flag | 8 April 1992 | See Russia–Turkmenistan relations
|
| Vorlage:Flag | 22 February 1992[15] |
Saudi Arabia has an embassy in Ashgabat, and Turkmenistan has an embassy in Riyadh. |
| Vorlage:Flag | 7 February 1992 |
Diplomatic relations were established on February 7, 1992. The countries have embassies in each other's capitals.[4][5] South Korean firms such as Hyundai and LG have won major contracts for building industrial plants. |
| Vorlage:Flag | 19 March 1992 |
|
| Vorlage:Flag | 25 June 1999 |
The countries established diplomatic relations on June 25, 1999.[15] |
| Vorlage:Flag | 10 April 1992[15] | Both countries established diplomatic relations on April 10, 1992. |
| Vorlage:Flag | 13 July 1992 |
Turkmenistan maintains a diplomatic mission in Geneva, which doubles as its embassy to Switzerland and is permanent representative to United Nations agencies in Geneva as well as to the World Trade Organization. The Swiss ambassador in Baku is accredited to Turkmenistan. |
| Vorlage:Flag | 27 January 1993[15] |
The two countries have embassies in each other's capitals. |
| Vorlage:Flag | 29 February 1992[22][15] | See Turkey–Turkmenistan relations
|
| Vorlage:Flag | 10 October 1992 |
Ukraine and Turkmenistan have embassies in each other's capitals.[4][5] Ukrainian companies have been involved in major construction projects, including the rail and automobile bridges across the Amu Darya at Türkmenabat. |
| Vorlage:Flag | 10 October 1995 |
The countries have embassies in each other's capitals. In addition, Turkmenistan has a consulate in Dubai. The Emirates are a major entrepot for imports of foodstuffs and consumer items into Turkmenistan. In addition, one of three oil-drilling concessions in the Caspian Sea is held by Dragon Oil, which is wholly owned by the Emirates National Oil Company. The international office of Turkmenistan's TAPI Pipeline Company is in Dubai. |
| Vorlage:Flag | 23 January 1992 | |
| Vorlage:Flag | 10 April 1992 | See Turkmenistan–United States relations
The United States and Turkmenistan continue to disagree about the latter country's path toward democratic and economic reform. The United States has publicly advocated industrial and agricultural privatization, market liberalization, and fiscal reform, as well as legal and regulatory reforms to open up the economy to foreign trade and investment, as the best way to achieve prosperity and true independence and sovereignty.
|
| Vorlage:Flag | 7 February 1993 | See Turkmenistan–Uzbekistan relations
|
| Vorlage:Flag | 30 April 1996[15] |
|
| Vorlage:Flag | 22 March 1999 |
Both countries established diplomatic relations on March 22, 1999.[14] |
See also[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]
References[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]
External links[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]
- "Potential gas customers line up to welcome new Turkmen leader", Eurasia Daily Monitor
- China's ambassador to Turkmenistan, Lu Guisheng, comments on bilateral cooperation
- Turkmenistan Foreign Policy in Nations Encyclopedia
[[Category:Foreign relations of Turkmenistan| ]]
[[Category:International organization membership by country|Turkmenistan]]
- ↑ Illicit Drug Trends in Central Asia. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, April 2008, S. 21, abgerufen am 26. Mai 2021.
- ↑ INOGATE. Abgerufen am 21. Februar 2015.
- ↑ STATES WITH WHICH TURKMENISTAN ESTABLISHED DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS. Abgerufen am 17. März 2022.
- ↑ a b c d e f DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIONS OF FOREIGN STATES AND INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS ACCREDITED IN TURKMENISTAN. Abgerufen am 17. April 2021.
- ↑ a b c d e f DIPLOMATIC MISSIONS AND CONSULAR OFFICES OF TURKMENISTAN ABROAD. Abgerufen am 17. April 2021.
- ↑ TRAIN SERVICE OPENS ON NEW TURKMEN-AFGHAN RAILWAY: SERHETABAT–TORGHUNDI, Turkmenistan Ministry of Foreign Affairs, February 24, 2018. Abgerufen im April 17, 2021
- ↑ Torghundi and the railway from Turkmenistan. Andrew Grantham, abgerufen am 17. April 2021.
- ↑ Oliver Cuenca: Iran – Afghanistan railway ready for traffic, International Railway Journal, December 9, 2020. Abgerufen im April 17, 2021
- ↑ Zarghona Salehai: Afghan-Turkmenistan railroad inaugurated, Pajhwok Afghan News, 28 November 2016. Abgerufen im 17 January 2017
- ↑ Туркменский и афганский лидеры запустили ж/д путь Акина-Андхой и ЛЭП Керки-Шиберган, SNG Today, 14 January 2021. Abgerufen im 17 April 2021 (russian).
- ↑ Turkmenistan: Berdymukhamedov passes the mantle (and phone). In: Eurasianet. 22. März 2022, abgerufen am 6. April 2022.
- ↑ Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan: Appointed by IEA MFA, Mr. Mohammad Fazel Saber was introduced in a ceremony as chargé d'affaires to his colleagues at the Afghan Embassy in Ashgabat, Turkmenistan, yesterday. 19. März 2022, abgerufen am 6. April 2022.
- ↑ IEA introduces caretaker ambassador to Turkmenistan In: Ariana News, 17 March 2022. Abgerufen im 6 April 2022
- ↑ a b c d e f States with Which Turkmenistan Established Diplomatic Relations. Abgerufen am 19. Februar 2019.
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i STATES WITH WHICH TURKMENISTAN ESTABLISHED DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS. Abgerufen am 19. Februar 2019.
- ↑ Turkmenistan established diplomatic relations with the Commonwealth of Dominica. Archiviert vom am 12. November 2016; abgerufen am 13. Dezember 2016.
- ↑ Relations between Georgia and Turkmenistan. Abgerufen am 17. April 2021.
- ↑ Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA) of Japan. Abgerufen am 29. Juli 2016.
- ↑ 10th Anniversary of Independence of Turkmenistan. Abgerufen am 21. Februar 2015.
- ↑ Russian Embassy in Turkmenistan web.archive.org Fehler bei Vorlage * Parametername unbekannt (Vorlage:Webarchiv): "date" Fehler bei Vorlage:Webarchiv: Genau einer der Parameter 'wayback', 'webciteID', 'archive-today', 'archive-is' oder 'archiv-url' muss angegeben werden. Fehler bei Vorlage:Webarchiv: enWP-Wert im Parameter 'url'. Vorlage:In lang
- ↑ Turkmenistan Embassy in Russia web.archive.org Fehler bei Vorlage * Parametername unbekannt (Vorlage:Webarchiv): "date" Fehler bei Vorlage:Webarchiv: Genau einer der Parameter 'wayback', 'webciteID', 'archive-today', 'archive-is' oder 'archiv-url' muss angegeben werden. Fehler bei Vorlage:Webarchiv: enWP-Wert im Parameter 'url'. Vorlage:In lang
- ↑ a b Relations between Turkey and Turkmenistan. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, abgerufen am 6. Oktober 2020.
- ↑ Economic Relations between Turkey and Turkmenistan. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, abgerufen am 6. Oktober 2020.
- ↑ British Embassy Ashgabat - GOV.UK. In: UK Government. Abgerufen am 25. Juli 2020.
- ↑ Home | LONDON, UK - EMBASSY OF TURKMENISTAN. In: Embassy of Turkmenistan - UK, London. Abgerufen am 25. Juli 2020.