„Frühe europäische Bauern“ – Versionsunterschied

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Die Frühen europäischen Bauern (englisch: Early European Farmers, EEF) sind eine Bezeichnung für bestimmte Gruppen von frühneolithischen Bauern, die die Landwirtschaft nach Europa und Nordwestafrika (Maghreb) brachten. Obwohl die Verbreitung der Landwirtschaft aus dem Nahen Osten nach Europa schon seit langem durch die Archäologie bekannt ist, haben erst jüngste Fortschritte in der Archäogenetik bestätigt, dass diese Ausbreitung eng mit einer Migration dieser Bauern zusammenhing und nicht nur auf kulturellem Austausch beruhte.

Die europäischen Frühbauern kamen um 7000 v. Chr. aus Kleinasien über Südosteuropa nach Europa, breiteten sich allmählich nach Norden und Westen aus und erreichten über die Iberische Halbinsel Nordwestafrika. Genetische Studien haben bestätigt, dass die frühen europäischen Bauern anatolische neolithische Bauern mit einem geringen Beitrag von westlichen Jägern und Sammlern (Western Hunter-Gatherers, WHGs) sind, wobei es erhebliche bei der Mischung der beiden Gruppen regionale Unterschiede gibt. Europäische Bauern und Jäger und Sammler koexistierten und handelten in einigen Gebieten miteinander, obwohl es Hinweise darauf gibt, dass die Beziehung nicht immer friedlich war. Im Laufe der nächsten etwa 4000 Jahre setzte sich die landwirtschaftliche Lebensweise in Europa durch, und die Jäger und Sammler wurden an den Rand gedrängt.

Während des Chalkolithikums und der frühen Bronzezeit wurden die früheuropäischen Bauernkulturen durch neue Migrationen aus der pontischen Steppe von einer Gruppe überwältigt, die mit den Menschen der Jamnaja-Kultur verwandt war, die von Steppenhirten abstammten und wahrscheinlich indoeuropäische Sprachen sprachen. Auch hier vermischten sich die Populationen. Die EEF-Abstammung ist in den modernen europäischen Populationen weit verbreitet, wobei die EEF-Abstammung bei den Südeuropäern, insbesondere den Sarden und Basken, am höchsten ist.^[1]

Überblick

Die Populationen des anatolischen Neolithikums stammten größtenteils von den anatolischen Jägern und Sammlern (AHG) ab, mit einem geringen Genfluss aus dem Iran/Kaukasus und der Levante, was darauf hindeutet, dass die Landwirtschaft von diesen Jägern und Sammlern an Ort und Stelle übernommen wurde und nicht durch Migration in die Region gelangte.^[2] Es wird angenommen, dass sich die Vorfahren der AHGs und EEFs während des letzteiszeitlichen Maximum vor 45.000 bis 26.000 Jahren von den westlichen Jägern und Sammlern (WHGs) und vor 25.000 bis 14.000 Jahren von den kaukasischen Jägern und Sammlern (Caucasus Hunter-Gatherer, CHG) abgespalten haben.^[3]

Genetische Studien zeigen, dass die Einführung der Landwirtschaft in Europa im 7. Jahrtausend v. Chr. mit einer Massenwanderung von Menschen aus Nordwestanatolien nach Südosteuropa verbunden war,^[4] was dazu führte, dass fast der gesamte (ca. 98 %) Genpool der lokalen Jäger und Sammler auf dem Balkan durch die anatolischer Bauern ersetzt wurde.^[5]^[6] Auf dem Balkan scheinen sich die EEF in zwei Flügel geteilt zu haben, die sich weiter westlich in Europa entlang der Donau (Bandkeramikkultur) und im westlichen Mittelmeerraum (Cardial- oder Impressokultur) ausbreiteten. Große Teile Nordeuropas und Osteuropas blieben jedoch von den EEF unbesiedelt.

Die häufigste väterliche Haplogruppe unter den EEFs war die Haplogruppe G2a, während auch die Haplogruppen E1b1 und R1b gefunden wurden.^[7] Ihre mütterlichen Haplogruppen bestanden hauptsächlich aus westeurasischen Linien, darunter die Haplogruppen H2, I und T2. Eine beträchtliche Anzahl mitteleuropäischer Landwirte gehörte jedoch der ostasiatischen mütterlichen Linie N9a an, die bei modernen Europäern fast nicht vorkommt, in Ostasien jedoch weit verbreitet ist.^[7]^[8]^[9]

Während des Chalkolithikums und der frühen Bronzezeit wurden die von den EEF abstammenden Kulturen Europas von aufeinander folgenden Invasionen westlicher Steppenhirten (Western Steppe Herders, WSH) aus der pontisch-kaspischen Steppe überwältigt, die zu etwa gleichen Teilen östliche Jäger und Sammler und kaukasische Jäger und Sammler als Vorfahren hatten. Diese Migrationen führten dazu, dass die väterlichen EEF-DNA-Linien in Europa fast vollständig durch väterliche WSH-DNA (hauptsächlich Subkladen von R1b und R1a, die von EHG abstammen) ersetzt wurden. Auch die mütterliche EEF-DNA (hauptsächlich Haplogruppe N) wurde weitgehend durch Steppenlinien ersetzt,^[10]^[11] was darauf hindeutet, dass an den Wanderungen sowohl Männer als auch Frauen aus der Steppe beteiligt waren.^[12]

Die EEF-Abstammung ist nach wie vor in ganz Europa weit verbreitet und reicht von etwa 60 % in der Nähe des Mittelmeers (mit einem Spitzenwert von 65 %) ^[13] auf der Insel Sardinien) und geht nach Norden hin auf etwa 10 % in Nordskandinavien zurück. Jüngeren Studien zufolge liegt der höchste EEF-Anteil bei modernen Europäern zwischen 67 % und über 80 % bei modernen Sarden, Italienern, Griechen und Iberern, während der niedrigste EEF-Anteil bei modernen Finnen, Litauern und Letten bei etwa 35-40 % liegt.^[14]

Physisches Erscheinungsbild

Die europäischen Jäger und Sammler waren viel größer als die EEF, und die Verdrängung der europäischen Jäger und Sammler durch die EEF führte zu einer dramatischen Abnahme der genetischen Körpergröße in ganz Europa. In den späteren Phasen des Neolithikums nahm die Körpergröße der europäischen Bauern zu, wahrscheinlich aufgrund der zunehmenden Vermischung mit Jägern und Sammlern. Während des Spätneolithikums und der Bronzezeit ging eine weitere Verringerung der EEF-Abstammung in Europa aufgrund der Migration von Völkern mit Abstammung aus der Steppe mit einer weiteren Zunahme der Körpergröße einher.^[15] Die hohe Häufigkeit der EEF-Abstammung in Südeuropa könnte teilweise die kleinere Körpergröße der Südeuropäer im Vergleich zu den Nordeuropäern erklären, die einen höheren Anteil an Abstammung aus der Steppe aufweisen.

Es wird angenommen, dass die frühen europäischen Bauern meist dunkelhaarig, dunkeläugig und hellhäutig waren,^[16] obwohl dunkler als die meisten modernen Europäer.^[17] Eine Studie über verschiedene EEF-Überreste in ganz Europa ergab, dass sie eine "mittlere bis helle Hautfarbe" hatten.^[18]

Siehe auch

Einzelnachweise

↑ Gülşah Merve Kılınç, Ayça Omrak, Füsun Özer, Torsten Günther, Ali Metin Büyükkarakaya, Erhan Bıçakçı, Douglas Baird, Handan Melike Dönertaş, Ayshin Ghalichi, Reyhan Yaka, Dilek Koptekin, Sinan Can Açan, Poorya Parvizi, Maja Krzewińska, Evangelia A. Daskalaki: The Demographic Development of the First Farmers in Anatolia. In: Current Biology. 26. Jahrgang, Nr. 19, 10. Oktober 2016, ISSN 0960-9822, S. 2659–2666, doi:10.1016/j.cub.2016.07.057, PMID 27498567, PMC 5069350 (freier Volltext).
↑ Johannes Krause, Choongwon Jeong, Wolfgang Haak, Cosimo Posth, Philipp W. Stockhammer, Gökhan Mustafaoğlu, Andrew Fairbairn, Raffaela A. Bianco, Julia Gresky: Late Pleistocene human genome suggests a local origin for the first farmers of central Anatolia. In: Nature Communications. 10. Jahrgang, Nr. 1, 19. März 2019, ISSN 2041-1723, S. 1218, doi:10.1038/s41467-019-09209-7, PMID 30890703, PMC 6425003 (freier Volltext), bibcode:2019NatCo..10.1218F (englisch).
↑ Nina Marchi, Laura Winkelbach, Ilektra Schulz, Maxime Brami, Zuzana Hofmanová, Jens Blöcher, Carlos S. Reyna-Blanco, Yoan Diekmann, Alexandre Thiéry, Adamandia Kapopoulou, Vivian Link, Valérie Piuz, Susanne Kreutzer, Sylwia M. Figarska, Elissavet Ganiatsou: The genomic origins of the world's first farmers. In: Cell. 185. Jahrgang, Nr. 11, Mai 2022, ISSN 0092-8674, S. 1842–1859.e18, doi:10.1016/j.cell.2022.04.008, PMID 35561686, PMC 9166250 (freier Volltext) – (doi.org).
↑ Iosif Lazaridis, Dani Nadel, Gary Rollefson, Deborah C. Merrett, Nadin Rohland, Swapan Mallick, Daniel Fernandes, Mario Novak, Beatriz Gamarra, Kendra Sirak, Sarah Connell, Kristin Stewardson, Eadaoin Harney, Qiaomei Fu, Gloria Gonzalez-Fortes: Genomic insights into the origin of farming in the ancient Near East. In: Nature. 536. Jahrgang, Nr. 7617, 8. August 2016, S. 419–424, doi:10.1038/nature19310, PMID 27459054, PMC 5003663 (freier Volltext), bibcode:2016Natur.536..419L (englisch).
↑ Andrew Curry: The first Europeans weren't who you might think (Memento des Originals vom 19 March 2021 im Internet Archive) In: National Geographic, August 2019
↑ Laura Spinney: When the First Farmers Arrived in Europe, Inequality Evolved In: Scientific American, 1 July 2020
↑ ^a ^b Jean Manco: Ancestral Journeys: The Peopling of Europe from the First Venturers to the Vikings. Revised and Updated Auflage. Thames & Hudson, 2016, ISBN 978-0-500-77290-4, S. 98–100 (google.com).
↑ Zsuzsanna Guba, Éva Hadadi, Ágnes Major, Tünde Furka, Emese Juhász, Judit Koós, Károly Nagy, Tamás Zeke: HVS-I polymorphism screening of ancient human mitochondrial DNA provides evidence for N9a discontinuity and East Asian haplogroups in the Neolithic Hungary. In: Journal of Human Genetics. 56. Jahrgang, Nr. 11, November 2011, ISSN 1435-232X, S. 784–796, doi:10.1038/jhg.2011.103, PMID 21918529 (englisch).
↑ Miroslava Derenko, Boris Malyarchuk, Tomasz Grzybowski, Galina Denisova, Urszula Rogalla, Maria Perkova, Irina Dambueva, Ilia Zakharov: Origin and Post-Glacial Dispersal of Mitochondrial DNA Haplogroups C and D in Northern Asia. In: PLOS ONE. 5. Jahrgang, Nr. 12, 21. Dezember 2010, ISSN 1932-6203, S. e15214, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0015214, PMID 21203537, PMC 3006427 (freier Volltext), bibcode:2010PLoSO...515214D (englisch).
↑ Pam J. Crabtree, Peter Bogucki: European Archaeology as Anthropology: Essays in Memory of Bernard Wailes. University of Pennsylvania Press, 2017, ISBN 978-1-934536-90-2, S. 55 (englisch, google.com). p.55: "In addition, uniparental markers changed suddenly as mtDNA N1a and Y haplogroup G2a, which had been very common in the EEF agricultural population, were replaced by Y haplogroups R1a and R1b and by a variety of mtDNA haplogroups typical of the Steppe Yamnaya population. The uniparental markers show that the migrants included both men and women from the steppes."
↑ Sanni Översti, Kerttu Majander, Elina Salmela, Kati Salo, Laura Arppe, Stanislav Belskiy, Heli Etu-Sihvola, Ville Laakso, Esa Mikkola, Saskia Pfrengle, Mikko Putkonen, Jussi-Pekka Taavitsainen, Katja Vuoristo, Anna Wessman, Antti Sajantila, Markku Oinonen, Wolfgang Haak, Verena J. Schuenemann, Johannes Krause, Jukka U. Palo, Päivi Onkamo: Human mitochondrial DNA lineages in Iron-Age Fennoscandia suggest incipient admixture and eastern introduction of farming-related maternal ancestry. In: Scientific Reports. 9. Jahrgang, Nr. 1, 15. November 2019, ISSN 2045-2322, S. 16883, doi:10.1038/s41598-019-51045-8, PMID 31729399, PMC 6858343 (freier Volltext), bibcode:2019NatSR...916883O (englisch). "The subsequent spread of Yamnaya-related people and Corded Ware Culture in the late Neolithic and Bronze Age were accompanied with the increase of haplogroups I, U2 and T1 in Europe (See8 and references therein)."
↑ Jura, Annas: Mitochondrial genomes reveal an east to west cline of steppe ancestry in Corded Ware populations. Nature Research, abgerufen am 6. April 2024.
↑ Daniel M. Fernandes, Alissa Mittnik, Iñigo Olalde, Iosif Lazaridis, Olivia Cheronet, Nadin Rohland, Swapan Mallick, Rebecca Bernardos, Nasreen Broomandkhoshbacht, Jens Carlsson, Brendan J. Culleton, Matthew Ferry, Beatriz Gamarra, Martina Lari, Matthew Mah, Megan Michel, Alessandra Modi, Mario Novak, Jonas Oppenheimer, Kendra A. Sirak, Kristin Stewardson, Kirsten Mandl, Constanze Schattke, Kadir T. Özdoğan, Michaela Lucci, Gabriella Gasperetti, Francesca Candilio, Gianfranca Salis, Stefania Vai, Edgard Camarós: The spread of steppe and Iranian-related ancestry in the islands of the western Mediterranean. In: Nature Ecology & Evolution. 4. Jahrgang, Nr. 3, 2020, S. 334–345, doi:10.1038/s41559-020-1102-0, PMID 32094539, PMC 7080320 (freier Volltext), bibcode:2020NatEE...4..334F.
↑ Clemente, Florian Unterlaender, Martina Dolgova, Olga Amorim, Carlos Eduardo G. Coroado-Santos, Francisco Neuenschwander, Samuel Ganiatsou, Elissavet Davalos, Diana I. Cruz Anchieri, Lucas Michaud, Frederic Winkelbach, Laura Bloecher, Jens Cardenas, Yami Ommar Arizmendi da Mota, Barbara Sousa Kalliga, Eleni Souleles, Angelos Kontopoulos, Ioannis Karamitrou-Mentessidi, Georgia Philaniotou, Olga Sampson, Adamantios Theodorou, Dimitra Tsipopoulou, Metaxia Akamatis, Ioannis Halstead, Paul Kotsakis, Kostas Urem-Kotsou, Dushka Panagiotopoulos, Diamantis Ziota, Christina Triantaphyllou, Sevasti Delaneau, Olivier Jensen, Jeffrey D. Victor Moreno-Mayar, J. Burger, Joachim Sousa, Vitor C. Lao, Oscar Malaspinas, Anna-Sapfo Papageorgopoulou Christina: The genomic history of the Aegean palatial civilizations. 2021, OCLC 1263227362, S. 41 (worldcat.org).
↑ Martiniano, Rui: The population genomics of archaeological transition in west Iberia: Investigation of ancient substructure using imputation and haplotype-based methods. PLOS Genetics, abgerufen am 6. April 2024 (englisch).
↑ Carles Lalueza-Fox: Inequality: A Genetic History. MIT Press, 2022, ISBN 978-0-262-04678-7, S. 29 (englisch, google.com). "p.29: "Physically, early farmers from Anatolia were different from those foragers; they had brown eyes but fair skin...."
↑ Ke Wang, Kay Prüfer, Ben Krause-Kyora, Ainash Childebayeva, Verena J. Schuenemann, Valentina Coia, Frank Maixner, Albert Zink, Stephan Schiffels, Johannes Krause: High-coverage genome of the Tyrolean Iceman reveals unusually high Anatolian farmer ancestry. In: Cell Genomics. 3. Jahrgang, Nr. 9, 16. August 2023, ISSN 2666-979X, S. 100377, doi:10.1016/j.xgen.2023.100377, PMID 37719142, PMC 10504632 (freier Volltext).
↑ Nina Marchi, Laura Winkelbach, Ilektra Schulz, Maxime Brami, Zuzana Hofmanová, Jens Blöcher, Carlos S. Reyna-Blanco, Yoan Diekmann, Alexandre Thiéry, Adamandia Kapopoulou, Vivian Link, Valérie Piuz, Susanne Kreutzer, Sylwia M. Figarska, Elissavet Ganiatsou: The genomic origins of the world's first farmers. In: Cell. 185. Jahrgang, Nr. 11, Mai 2022, ISSN 0092-8674, S. 1842–1859.e18, doi:10.1016/j.cell.2022.04.008, PMID 35561686, PMC 9166250 (freier Volltext) – (doi.org): „We find that the vast majority of early farmers in our dataset had intermediate to light skin complexion“

[1] Gülşah Merve Kılınç, Ayça Omrak, Füsun Özer, Torsten Günther, Ali Metin Büyükkarakaya, Erhan Bıçakçı, Douglas Baird, Handan Melike Dönertaş, Ayshin Ghalichi, Reyhan Yaka, Dilek Koptekin, Sinan Can Açan, Poorya Parvizi, Maja Krzewińska, Evangelia A. Daskalaki: The Demographic Development of the First Farmers in Anatolia. In: Current Biology. 26. Jahrgang, Nr. 19, 10. Oktober 2016, ISSN 0960-9822, S. 2659–2666, doi:10.1016/j.cub.2016.07.057, PMID 27498567, PMC 5069350 (freier Volltext).

[2] Johannes Krause, Choongwon Jeong, Wolfgang Haak, Cosimo Posth, Philipp W. Stockhammer, Gökhan Mustafaoğlu, Andrew Fairbairn, Raffaela A. Bianco, Julia Gresky: Late Pleistocene human genome suggests a local origin for the first farmers of central Anatolia. In: Nature Communications. 10. Jahrgang, Nr. 1, 19. März 2019, ISSN 2041-1723, S. 1218, doi:10.1038/s41467-019-09209-7, PMID 30890703, PMC 6425003 (freier Volltext), bibcode:2019NatCo..10.1218F (englisch).

[3] Nina Marchi, Laura Winkelbach, Ilektra Schulz, Maxime Brami, Zuzana Hofmanová, Jens Blöcher, Carlos S. Reyna-Blanco, Yoan Diekmann, Alexandre Thiéry, Adamandia Kapopoulou, Vivian Link, Valérie Piuz, Susanne Kreutzer, Sylwia M. Figarska, Elissavet Ganiatsou: The genomic origins of the world's first farmers. In: Cell. 185. Jahrgang, Nr. 11, Mai 2022, ISSN 0092-8674, S. 1842–1859.e18, doi:10.1016/j.cell.2022.04.008, PMID 35561686, PMC 9166250 (freier Volltext) – (doi.org).

[4] Iosif Lazaridis, Dani Nadel, Gary Rollefson, Deborah C. Merrett, Nadin Rohland, Swapan Mallick, Daniel Fernandes, Mario Novak, Beatriz Gamarra, Kendra Sirak, Sarah Connell, Kristin Stewardson, Eadaoin Harney, Qiaomei Fu, Gloria Gonzalez-Fortes: Genomic insights into the origin of farming in the ancient Near East. In: Nature. 536. Jahrgang, Nr. 7617, 8. August 2016, S. 419–424, doi:10.1038/nature19310, PMID 27459054, PMC 5003663 (freier Volltext), bibcode:2016Natur.536..419L (englisch).

[5] Andrew Curry: The first Europeans weren't who you might think (Memento des Originals vom 19 March 2021 im Internet Archive) In: National Geographic, August 2019

[6] Laura Spinney: When the First Farmers Arrived in Europe, Inequality Evolved In: Scientific American, 1 July 2020

[Hudson-7] Jean Manco: Ancestral Journeys: The Peopling of Europe from the First Venturers to the Vikings. Revised and Updated Auflage. Thames & Hudson, 2016, ISBN 978-0-500-77290-4, S. 98–100 (google.com).

[8] Zsuzsanna Guba, Éva Hadadi, Ágnes Major, Tünde Furka, Emese Juhász, Judit Koós, Károly Nagy, Tamás Zeke: HVS-I polymorphism screening of ancient human mitochondrial DNA provides evidence for N9a discontinuity and East Asian haplogroups in the Neolithic Hungary. In: Journal of Human Genetics. 56. Jahrgang, Nr. 11, November 2011, ISSN 1435-232X, S. 784–796, doi:10.1038/jhg.2011.103, PMID 21918529 (englisch).

[9] Miroslava Derenko, Boris Malyarchuk, Tomasz Grzybowski, Galina Denisova, Urszula Rogalla, Maria Perkova, Irina Dambueva, Ilia Zakharov: Origin and Post-Glacial Dispersal of Mitochondrial DNA Haplogroups C and D in Northern Asia. In: PLOS ONE. 5. Jahrgang, Nr. 12, 21. Dezember 2010, ISSN 1932-6203, S. e15214, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0015214, PMID 21203537, PMC 3006427 (freier Volltext), bibcode:2010PLoSO...515214D (englisch).

[10] Pam J. Crabtree, Peter Bogucki: European Archaeology as Anthropology: Essays in Memory of Bernard Wailes. University of Pennsylvania Press, 2017, ISBN 978-1-934536-90-2, S. 55 (englisch, google.com). p.55: "In addition, uniparental markers changed suddenly as mtDNA N1a and Y haplogroup G2a, which had been very common in the EEF agricultural population, were replaced by Y haplogroups R1a and R1b and by a variety of mtDNA haplogroups typical of the Steppe Yamnaya population. The uniparental markers show that the migrants included both men and women from the steppes."

[11] Sanni Översti, Kerttu Majander, Elina Salmela, Kati Salo, Laura Arppe, Stanislav Belskiy, Heli Etu-Sihvola, Ville Laakso, Esa Mikkola, Saskia Pfrengle, Mikko Putkonen, Jussi-Pekka Taavitsainen, Katja Vuoristo, Anna Wessman, Antti Sajantila, Markku Oinonen, Wolfgang Haak, Verena J. Schuenemann, Johannes Krause, Jukka U. Palo, Päivi Onkamo: Human mitochondrial DNA lineages in Iron-Age Fennoscandia suggest incipient admixture and eastern introduction of farming-related maternal ancestry. In: Scientific Reports. 9. Jahrgang, Nr. 1, 15. November 2019, ISSN 2045-2322, S. 16883, doi:10.1038/s41598-019-51045-8, PMID 31729399, PMC 6858343 (freier Volltext), bibcode:2019NatSR...916883O (englisch). "The subsequent spread of Yamnaya-related people and Corded Ware Culture in the late Neolithic and Bronze Age were accompanied with the increase of haplogroups I, U2 and T1 in Europe (See8 and references therein)."

[12] Jura, Annas: Mitochondrial genomes reveal an east to west cline of steppe ancestry in Corded Ware populations. Nature Research, abgerufen am 6. April 2024.

[13] Daniel M. Fernandes, Alissa Mittnik, Iñigo Olalde, Iosif Lazaridis, Olivia Cheronet, Nadin Rohland, Swapan Mallick, Rebecca Bernardos, Nasreen Broomandkhoshbacht, Jens Carlsson, Brendan J. Culleton, Matthew Ferry, Beatriz Gamarra, Martina Lari, Matthew Mah, Megan Michel, Alessandra Modi, Mario Novak, Jonas Oppenheimer, Kendra A. Sirak, Kristin Stewardson, Kirsten Mandl, Constanze Schattke, Kadir T. Özdoğan, Michaela Lucci, Gabriella Gasperetti, Francesca Candilio, Gianfranca Salis, Stefania Vai, Edgard Camarós: The spread of steppe and Iranian-related ancestry in the islands of the western Mediterranean. In: Nature Ecology & Evolution. 4. Jahrgang, Nr. 3, 2020, S. 334–345, doi:10.1038/s41559-020-1102-0, PMID 32094539, PMC 7080320 (freier Volltext), bibcode:2020NatEE...4..334F.

[14] Clemente, Florian Unterlaender, Martina Dolgova, Olga Amorim, Carlos Eduardo G. Coroado-Santos, Francisco Neuenschwander, Samuel Ganiatsou, Elissavet Davalos, Diana I. Cruz Anchieri, Lucas Michaud, Frederic Winkelbach, Laura Bloecher, Jens Cardenas, Yami Ommar Arizmendi da Mota, Barbara Sousa Kalliga, Eleni Souleles, Angelos Kontopoulos, Ioannis Karamitrou-Mentessidi, Georgia Philaniotou, Olga Sampson, Adamantios Theodorou, Dimitra Tsipopoulou, Metaxia Akamatis, Ioannis Halstead, Paul Kotsakis, Kostas Urem-Kotsou, Dushka Panagiotopoulos, Diamantis Ziota, Christina Triantaphyllou, Sevasti Delaneau, Olivier Jensen, Jeffrey D. Victor Moreno-Mayar, J. Burger, Joachim Sousa, Vitor C. Lao, Oscar Malaspinas, Anna-Sapfo Papageorgopoulou Christina: The genomic history of the Aegean palatial civilizations. 2021, OCLC 1263227362, S. 41 (worldcat.org).

[15] Martiniano, Rui: The population genomics of archaeological transition in west Iberia: Investigation of ancient substructure using imputation and haplotype-based methods. PLOS Genetics, abgerufen am 6. April 2024 (englisch).

[16] Carles Lalueza-Fox: Inequality: A Genetic History. MIT Press, 2022, ISBN 978-0-262-04678-7, S. 29 (englisch, google.com). "p.29: "Physically, early farmers from Anatolia were different from those foragers; they had brown eyes but fair skin...."

[17] Ke Wang, Kay Prüfer, Ben Krause-Kyora, Ainash Childebayeva, Verena J. Schuenemann, Valentina Coia, Frank Maixner, Albert Zink, Stephan Schiffels, Johannes Krause: High-coverage genome of the Tyrolean Iceman reveals unusually high Anatolian farmer ancestry. In: Cell Genomics. 3. Jahrgang, Nr. 9, 16. August 2023, ISSN 2666-979X, S. 100377, doi:10.1016/j.xgen.2023.100377, PMID 37719142, PMC 10504632 (freier Volltext).

[18] Nina Marchi, Laura Winkelbach, Ilektra Schulz, Maxime Brami, Zuzana Hofmanová, Jens Blöcher, Carlos S. Reyna-Blanco, Yoan Diekmann, Alexandre Thiéry, Adamandia Kapopoulou, Vivian Link, Valérie Piuz, Susanne Kreutzer, Sylwia M. Figarska, Elissavet Ganiatsou: The genomic origins of the world's first farmers. In: Cell. 185. Jahrgang, Nr. 11, Mai 2022, ISSN 0092-8674, S. 1842–1859.e18, doi:10.1016/j.cell.2022.04.008, PMID 35561686, PMC 9166250 (freier Volltext) – (doi.org): „We find that the vast majority of early farmers in our dataset had intermediate to light skin complexion“

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+[[Datei:Genetic matrilineal distances between European Neolithic Linear Pottery Culture populations (5,500–4,900 calibrated BC) and modern Western Eurasian populations.jpg|mini|Genetische matrilineare Abstände zwischen europäischen Populationen der neolithischen [[Linearbandkeramische Kultur|Linearbandkeramikkultur]] (5.500-4.900 v. Chr.) und modernen westeurasischen Populationen. Die Färbung zeigt den Grad der Ähnlichkeit der modernen lokalen Bevölkerung(en) mit der neolithischen Stichprobe an: Je grüner die Farbe, desto größer die Ähnlichkeit]]
-{{short description|Archaeogenetic name for an ancestral genetic component}}
+Die '''Frühen europäischen Bauern''' ([[Englische Sprache|englisch]]: ''Early European Farmers, EEF'') sind eine Bezeichnung für bestimmte Gruppen von [[Frühneolithikum|frühneolithischen]] Bauern, die die [[Landwirtschaft]] nach [[Europa]] und [[Nordwestafrika]] (Maghreb) brachten. Obwohl die Verbreitung der Landwirtschaft aus dem [[Naher Osten|Nahen Osten]] nach Europa schon seit langem durch die [[Archäologie]] bekannt ist, haben erst jüngste Fortschritte in der [[Archäogenetik]] bestätigt, dass diese Ausbreitung eng mit einer Migration dieser Bauern zusammenhing und nicht nur auf kulturellem Austausch beruhte.
-{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2024}}
-'''Early European Farmers (EEF)''', '''First European Farmers''', '''Neolithic European Farmers''', '''Ancient Aegean Farmers''', or '''Anatolian Neolithic Farmers''' are names used to describe a distinct group of early [[Neolithic]] farmers who brought agriculture to [[Europe]] and [[North Africa|Northwest Africa (Maghreb)]]. Although the spread of agriculture from the [[Middle East]] to Europe has long been recognised through archaeology, it is only recent advances in [[archaeogenetics]] that have confirmed that this spread was strongly correlated with a [[Human migration|migration]] of these farmers, and was not just a [[cultural exchange]].
+Die europäischen Frühbauern kamen um 7000 v. Chr. aus [[Kleinasien]] über [[Südosteuropa]] nach Europa, breiteten sich allmählich nach Norden und Westen aus und erreichten über die [[Iberische Halbinsel]] Nordwestafrika. Genetische Studien haben bestätigt, dass die frühen europäischen Bauern anatolische neolithische Bauern mit einem geringen Beitrag von [[Westliche Jäger und Sammler|westlichen Jägern und Sammlern]] (''Western Hunter-Gatherers, WHGs'') sind, wobei es erhebliche bei der Mischung der beiden Gruppen regionale Unterschiede gibt. Europäische Bauern und Jäger und Sammler koexistierten und handelten in einigen Gebieten miteinander, obwohl es Hinweise darauf gibt, dass die Beziehung nicht immer friedlich war. Im Laufe der nächsten etwa 4000 Jahre setzte sich die landwirtschaftliche Lebensweise in Europa durch, und die Jäger und Sammler wurden an den Rand gedrängt.
-The Early European Farmers moved into Europe from [[Asia Minor]] through [[Southeast Europe]] from around 7,000 BC, gradually spread north and westwards, and  reached Northwest Africa via the [[Iberian Peninsula]]. [[Genetic history of Europe|Genetic studies]] have confirmed that Early European Farmers can be modelled as Anatolian Neolithic Farmers with a minor contribution  from [[Western Hunter-Gatherer]]s (WHGs), with significant regional variation. European farmer and hunter-gatherer populations coexisted and traded in some locales, although evidence suggests that the relationship was not always peaceful. Over the course of the next 4,000 years or so, Europe was transformed into agricultural communities, and WHGs were displaced to the margins.
-During the [[Chalcolithic]] and early [[Bronze Age]], the Early European Farmer cultures were overwhelmed by new migrations from the [[Pontic steppe]] by a group related to people of the [[Yamnaya culture]] who carried [[Western Steppe Herders|Western Steppe Herder]] ancestry and probably spoke [[Indo-European languages]]. Once again the populations mixed, and EEF ancestry is common in modern European populations, with EEF ancestry highest in Southern Europeans, especially Sardinians and Basque people.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kılınç |first1=Gülşah Merve |last2=Omrak |first2=Ayça |last3=Özer |first3=Füsun |last4=Günther |first4=Torsten |last5=Büyükkarakaya |first5=Ali Metin |last6=Bıçakçı |first6=Erhan |last7=Baird |first7=Douglas |last8=Dönertaş |first8=Handan Melike |last9=Ghalichi |first9=Ayshin |last10=Yaka |first10=Reyhan |last11=Koptekin |first11=Dilek |last12=Açan |first12=Sinan Can |last13=Parvizi |first13=Poorya |last14=Krzewińska |first14=Maja |last15=Daskalaki |first15=Evangelia A. |date=10 October 2016 |title=The Demographic Development of the First Farmers in Anatolia |journal=Current Biology |volume=26 |issue=19 |pages=2659–2666 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2016.07.057 |pmid=27498567 |pmc=5069350 |issn=0960-9822}}</ref>
+Während des [[Chalkolithikum|Chalkolithikums]] und der [[Frühe Bronzezeit|frühen Bronzezeit]] wurden die früheuropäischen Bauernkulturen durch neue Migrationen aus der [[Eurasische Steppe|pontischen Steppe]] von einer Gruppe überwältigt, die mit den Menschen der [[Jamnaja-Kultur]] verwandt war, die von Steppenhirten abstammten und wahrscheinlich [[indoeuropäische Sprachen]] sprachen. Auch hier vermischten sich die Populationen. Die EEF-Abstammung ist in den modernen europäischen Populationen weit verbreitet, wobei die EEF-Abstammung bei den Südeuropäern, insbesondere den [[Sarden]] und [[Basken]], am höchsten ist.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kılınç |first=Gülşah Merve |last2=Omrak |first2=Ayça |last3=Özer |first3=Füsun |last4=Günther |first4=Torsten |last5=Büyükkarakaya |first5=Ali Metin |last6=Bıçakçı |first6=Erhan |last7=Baird |first7=Douglas |last8=Dönertaş |first8=Handan Melike |last9=Ghalichi |first9=Ayshin |last10=Yaka |first10=Reyhan |last11=Koptekin |first11=Dilek |last12=Açan |first12=Sinan Can |last13=Parvizi |first13=Poorya |last14=Krzewińska |first14=Maja |last15=Daskalaki |first15=Evangelia A. |title=The Demographic Development of the First Farmers in Anatolia |work=Current Biology |issue=19 |volume=26 |pages=2659–2666 |date=10 October 2016 |issn=0960-9822 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2016.07.057 |pmid=27498567 |pmc=5069350}}</ref>
-==Overview==
+== Überblick ==
+[[Datei:Expansion_of_farming_in_western_Eurasia,_9600–4000_BCE.png|mini|Ausbreitung der Landwirtschaft von Südwestasien nach Europa und Nordwestafrika, zwischen 9600 und 4000 v. Chr.]]
-{{See also|Neolithic Revolution}}
+Die Populationen des anatolischen Neolithikums stammten größtenteils von den anatolischen Jägern und Sammlern (AHG) ab, mit einem geringen Genfluss aus dem [[Iran]]/[[Kaukasus]] und der [[Levante]], was darauf hindeutet, dass die Landwirtschaft von diesen Jägern und Sammlern an Ort und Stelle übernommen wurde und nicht durch Migration in die Region gelangte.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Krause |first=Johannes |last2=Jeong |first2=Choongwon |last3=Haak |first3=Wolfgang |last4=Posth |first4=Cosimo |last5=Stockhammer |first5=Philipp W. |last6=Mustafaoğlu |first6=Gökhan |last7=Fairbairn |first7=Andrew |last8=Bianco |first8=Raffaela A. |last9=Julia Gresky |title=Late Pleistocene human genome suggests a local origin for the first farmers of central Anatolia |work=Nature Communications |language=en |issue=1 |volume=10 |pages=1218 |date=19 March 2019 |issn=2041-1723 |doi=10.1038/s41467-019-09209-7 |pmid=30890703 |bibcode=2019NatCo..10.1218F |pmc=6425003 |accessdate=free}}</ref> Es wird angenommen, dass sich die Vorfahren der AHGs und EEFs während des [[Letzteiszeitliches Maximum|letzteiszeitlichen Maximum]] vor 45.000 bis 26.000 Jahren von den westlichen Jägern und Sammlern (WHGs) und vor 25.000 bis 14.000 Jahren von den kaukasischen Jägern und Sammlern (Caucasus Hunter-Gatherer, CHG) abgespalten haben.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Marchi |first=Nina |last2=Winkelbach |first2=Laura |last3=Schulz |first3=Ilektra |last4=Brami |first4=Maxime |last5=Hofmanová |first5=Zuzana |last6=Blöcher |first6=Jens |last7=Reyna-Blanco |first7=Carlos S. |last8=Diekmann |first8=Yoan |last9=Thiéry |first9=Alexandre |last10=Kapopoulou |first10=Adamandia |last11=Link |first11=Vivian |last12=Piuz |first12=Valérie |last13=Kreutzer |first13=Susanne |last14=Figarska |first14=Sylwia M. |last15=Ganiatsou |first15=Elissavet |title=The genomic origins of the world's first farmers |work=Cell |issue=11 |volume=185 |pages=1842–1859.e18 |date=May 2022 |issn=0092-8674 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2022.04.008 |pmid=35561686 |pmc=9166250 |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2022.04.008}}</ref>
-[[File:Expansion of farming in western Eurasia, 9600–4000 BCE.png|thumb|upright=1.3|Spread of farming from Southwest Asia to Europe and Northwest Africa, between 9600 and 4000 BC]]
+Genetische Studien zeigen, dass die Einführung der Landwirtschaft in Europa im [[7. Jahrtausend v. Chr.]] mit einer Massenwanderung von Menschen aus Nordwestanatolien nach Südosteuropa verbunden war,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lazaridis |first=Iosif |last2=Nadel |first2=Dani |last3=Rollefson |first3=Gary |last4=Merrett |first4=Deborah C. |last5=Rohland |first5=Nadin |last6=Mallick |first6=Swapan |last7=Fernandes |first7=Daniel |last8=Novak |first8=Mario |last9=Gamarra |first9=Beatriz |last10=Sirak |first10=Kendra |last11=Connell |first11=Sarah |last12=Stewardson |first12=Kristin |last13=Harney |first13=Eadaoin |last14=Fu |first14=Qiaomei |last15=Gonzalez-Fortes |first15=Gloria |title=Genomic insights into the origin of farming in the ancient Near East |work=Nature |language=en |issue=7617 |volume=536 |pages=419–424 |date=8 August 2016 |doi=10.1038/nature19310 |pmid=27459054 |bibcode=2016Natur.536..419L |pmc=5003663}}</ref> was dazu führte, dass fast der gesamte (ca. 98 %) Genpool der lokalen Jäger und Sammler auf dem Balkan durch die anatolischer Bauern ersetzt wurde.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Curry |first=Andrew |title=The first Europeans weren't who you might think |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/first-europeans-immigrants-genetic-testing-feature |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210319032852/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/first-europeans-immigrants-genetic-testing-feature |archive-date=19 March 2021 |url-status=dead |work=National Geographic |date=August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Spinney |first=Laura |title=When the First Farmers Arrived in Europe, Inequality Evolved |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/when-the-first-farmers-arrived-in-europe-inequality-evolved/ |work=Scientific American |date=1 July 2020}}</ref> Auf dem Balkan scheinen sich die EEF in zwei Flügel geteilt zu haben, die sich weiter westlich in Europa entlang der [[Donau]] ([[Bandkeramik-Kultur|Bandkeramikkultur]]) und im westlichen Mittelmeerraum ([[Cardial- oder Impressokultur]]) ausbreiteten. Große Teile Nordeuropas und Osteuropas blieben jedoch von den EEF unbesiedelt.
-Populations of the [[Prehistory of Anatolia|Anatolian Neolithic]] derived most of their ancestry from the [[Anatolian hunter-gatherers]] (AHG), with a minor geneflow from Iranian/Caucasus and Levantine related sources, suggesting that [[agriculture]] was adopted ''in situ'' by these hunter-gatherers and not spread by [[demic diffusion]] into the region.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Krause|first1=Johannes|last2=Jeong|first2=Choongwon|last3=Haak|first3=Wolfgang|last4=Posth|first4=Cosimo|last5=Stockhammer|first5=Philipp W.|last6=Mustafaoğlu|first6=Gökhan|last7=Fairbairn|first7=Andrew|last8=Bianco|first8=Raffaela A.|last9=Julia Gresky|date=19 March 2019|title=Late Pleistocene human genome suggests a local origin for the first farmers of central Anatolia|journal=Nature Communications|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|pages=1218|doi=10.1038/s41467-019-09209-7|pmid=30890703|pmc=6425003|bibcode=2019NatCo..10.1218F |issn=2041-1723|doi-access=free}}</ref> Ancestors of AHGs and EEFs are believed to have split off from [[Western Hunter-Gatherer]]s (WHGs) between 45kya to 26kya during the [[Last Glacial Maximum]], and to have split from [[Caucasian Hunter-Gatherer]]s (CHGs) between 25kya to 14kya.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Marchi |first1=Nina |last2=Winkelbach |first2=Laura |last3=Schulz |first3=Ilektra |last4=Brami |first4=Maxime |last5=Hofmanová |first5=Zuzana |last6=Blöcher |first6=Jens |last7=Reyna-Blanco |first7=Carlos S. |last8=Diekmann |first8=Yoan |last9=Thiéry |first9=Alexandre |last10=Kapopoulou |first10=Adamandia |last11=Link |first11=Vivian |last12=Piuz |first12=Valérie |last13=Kreutzer |first13=Susanne |last14=Figarska |first14=Sylwia M. |last15=Ganiatsou |first15=Elissavet |date=May 2022 |title=The genomic origins of the world's first farmers |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2022.04.008 |journal=Cell |volume=185 |issue=11 |pages=1842–1859.e18 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2022.04.008 |issn=0092-8674 |pmc=9166250 |pmid=35561686}}</ref>
+Die häufigste väterliche Haplogruppe unter den EEFs war die [[Haplogruppe]] [[Haplogruppe G (Y-DNA)|G2a]], während auch die Haplogruppen [[Haplogruppe E (Y-DNA)|E1b1]] und [[Haplogruppe R1b (Y-DNA)|R1b]] gefunden wurden.<ref name="Hudson">{{Cite book |last=Manco |first=Jean |title=Ancestral Journeys: The Peopling of Europe from the First Venturers to the Vikings |publisher=Thames & Hudson |edition=Revised and Updated |date=2016 |page=98-100 |isbn=978-0-500-77290-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_pJrCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT98}}</ref> Ihre mütterlichen Haplogruppen bestanden hauptsächlich aus westeurasischen Linien, darunter die Haplogruppen [[Haplogruppe H (mtDNA)|H2]], [[Haplogruppe I (mtDNA)|I]] und T2. Eine beträchtliche Anzahl mitteleuropäischer Landwirte gehörte jedoch der ostasiatischen mütterlichen Linie [[Haplogruppe N (mtDNA)|N9a]] an, die bei modernen Europäern fast nicht vorkommt, in [[Ostasien]] jedoch weit verbreitet ist.<ref name="Hudson" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Guba |first=Zsuzsanna |last2=Hadadi |first2=Éva |last3=Major |first3=Ágnes |last4=Furka |first4=Tünde |last5=Juhász |first5=Emese |last6=Koós |first6=Judit |last7=Nagy |first7=Károly |last8=Zeke |first8=Tamás |title=HVS-I polymorphism screening of ancient human mitochondrial DNA provides evidence for N9a discontinuity and East Asian haplogroups in the Neolithic Hungary |work=Journal of Human Genetics |language=en |issue=11 |volume=56 |pages=784–796 |date=November 2011 |issn=1435-232X |doi=10.1038/jhg.2011.103 |pmid=21918529 |accessdate=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Derenko |first=Miroslava |last2=Malyarchuk |first2=Boris |last3=Grzybowski |first3=Tomasz |last4=Denisova |first4=Galina |last5=Rogalla |first5=Urszula |last6=Perkova |first6=Maria |last7=Dambueva |first7=Irina |last8=Zakharov |first8=Ilia |title=Origin and Post-Glacial Dispersal of Mitochondrial DNA Haplogroups C and D in Northern Asia |work=PLOS ONE |language=en |issue=12 |volume=5 |pages=e15214 |date=21 December 2010 |issn=1932-6203 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0015214 |pmid=21203537 |bibcode=2010PLoSO...515214D |pmc=3006427 |accessdate=free}}</ref>
-Genetic studies demonstrate that the introduction of farming to Europe in the 7th millennium BC was associated with a mass migration of people from Northwest [[Anatolia]] to Southeast Europe,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lazaridis |first1=Iosif |last2=Nadel |first2=Dani |last3=Rollefson |first3=Gary |last4=Merrett |first4=Deborah C. |last5=Rohland |first5=Nadin |last6=Mallick |first6=Swapan |last7=Fernandes |first7=Daniel |last8=Novak |first8=Mario |last9=Gamarra |first9=Beatriz |last10=Sirak |first10=Kendra |last11=Connell |first11=Sarah |last12=Stewardson |first12=Kristin |last13=Harney |first13=Eadaoin |last14=Fu |first14=Qiaomei |last15=Gonzalez-Fortes |first15=Gloria |date=8 August 2016 |title=Genomic insights into the origin of farming in the ancient Near East |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=536 |issue=7617 |pages=419–424 |doi=10.1038/nature19310 |pmid=27459054|pmc=5003663 |bibcode=2016Natur.536..419L }}</ref> which resulted in the replacement of almost all (c. 98%) of the local Balkan hunter-gatherer gene pool with ancestry from Anatolian farmers.{{sfn|Mathieson et al.|2018}}<ref>{{cite news |first=Andrew |last=Curry |title=The first Europeans weren't who you might think |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/first-europeans-immigrants-genetic-testing-feature |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210319032852/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/first-europeans-immigrants-genetic-testing-feature |url-status=dead |archive-date=19 March 2021 |work=National Geographic |date=August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Laura |last=Spinney |title=When the First Farmers Arrived in Europe, Inequality Evolved |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/when-the-first-farmers-arrived-in-europe-inequality-evolved/ |work=Scientific American |date=1 July 2020}}</ref> In the Balkans, the EEFs appear to have divided into two wings, who expanded further west into Europe along the [[Danube]] ([[Linear Pottery culture]]) or the western [[Mediterranean]] ([[Cardial Ware]]). Large parts of [[Northern Europe]] and [[Eastern Europe]] nevertheless remained unsettled by EEFs. During the Middle Neolithic there was a largely male-driven resurgence of WHG ancestry among many EEF-derived communities, leading to increasing frequencies of the hunter-gatherer paternal haplogroups among them.
+Während des Chalkolithikums und der frühen Bronzezeit wurden die von den EEF abstammenden Kulturen Europas von aufeinander folgenden Invasionen westlicher Steppenhirten (Western Steppe Herders, WSH) aus der pontisch-kaspischen Steppe überwältigt, die zu etwa gleichen Teilen östliche Jäger und Sammler und kaukasische Jäger und Sammler als Vorfahren hatten. Diese Migrationen führten dazu, dass die väterlichen EEF-DNA-Linien in Europa fast vollständig durch väterliche WSH-DNA (hauptsächlich Subkladen von R1b und R1a, die von EHG abstammen) ersetzt wurden. Auch die mütterliche EEF-DNA (hauptsächlich Haplogruppe N) wurde weitgehend durch Steppenlinien ersetzt,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Crabtree |first=Pam J. |last2=Bogucki |first2=Peter |title=European Archaeology as Anthropology: Essays in Memory of Bernard Wailes |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |date=25 January 2017 |language=en |page=55 |isbn=978-1-934536-90-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2A76DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA55}}p.55: "In addition, uniparental markers changed suddenly as mtDNA N1a and Y haplogroup G2a, which had been very common in the EEF agricultural population, were replaced by Y haplogroups R1a and R1b and by a variety of mtDNA haplogroups typical of the Steppe Yamnaya population. The uniparental markers show that the migrants included both men and women from the steppes."</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Översti |first=Sanni |last2=Majander |first2=Kerttu |last3=Salmela |first3=Elina |last4=Salo |first4=Kati |last5=Arppe |first5=Laura |last6=Belskiy |first6=Stanislav |last7=Etu-Sihvola |first7=Heli |last8=Laakso |first8=Ville |last9=Mikkola |first9=Esa |last10=Pfrengle |first10=Saskia |last11=Putkonen |first11=Mikko |last12=Taavitsainen |first12=Jussi-Pekka |last13=Vuoristo |first13=Katja |last14=Wessman |first14=Anna |last15=Sajantila |first15=Antti |last16=Oinonen |first16=Markku |last17=Haak |first17=Wolfgang |last18=Schuenemann |first18=Verena J. |last19=Krause |first19=Johannes |last20=Palo |first20=Jukka U. |last21=Onkamo |first21=Päivi |title=Human mitochondrial DNA lineages in Iron-Age Fennoscandia suggest incipient admixture and eastern introduction of farming-related maternal ancestry |work=Scientific Reports |language=en |issue=1 |volume=9 |pages=16883 |date=15 November 2019 |issn=2045-2322 |doi=10.1038/s41598-019-51045-8 |pmid=31729399 |bibcode=2019NatSR...916883O |pmc=6858343}} "The subsequent spread of Yamnaya-related people and Corded Ware Culture in the late Neolithic and Bronze Age were accompanied with the increase of haplogroups I, U2 and T1 in Europe (See8 and references therein)."</ref> was darauf hindeutet, dass an den Wanderungen sowohl Männer als auch Frauen aus der Steppe beteiligt waren.<ref>{{Internetquelle |autor=Jura, Annas |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6072757/ |titel=Mitochondrial genomes reveal an east to west cline of steppe ancestry in Corded Ware populations |hrsg=Nature Research |abruf=2024-04-06}}</ref>
-The most common [[Y-DNA haplogroup|paternal haplogroup]] among EEFs was [[Haplogroup G-M201|haplogroup G2a]], while haplogroups [[Haplogroup E-P2|E1b1]] and [[Haplogroup R1b|R1b]] have also been found.<ref name="Hudson">{{cite book |last1=Manco |first1=Jean |title=Ancestral Journeys: The Peopling of Europe from the First Venturers to the Vikings |date=2016 |publisher=Thames & Hudson |isbn=978-0-500-77290-4 |page=98-100 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_pJrCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT98 |edition=Revised and Updated }}</ref> Their [[mtDNA haplogroup|maternal haplogroups]] consisted mainly of West Eurasian lineages including haplogroups [[haplogroup_H_(mtDNA)|H2]], [[haplogroup_I_(mtDNA)|I]], and [[haplogroup_T_(mtDNA)|T2]], however significant numbers of central European farmers belonged to East Asian maternal lineage [[haplogroup N (mtDNA)#Distribution|N9a]], which is almost non-existent in modern Europeans, but common in [[East Asia]].<ref name="Hudson" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Guba |first1=Zsuzsanna |last2=Hadadi |first2=Éva |last3=Major |first3=Ágnes |last4=Furka |first4=Tünde |last5=Juhász |first5=Emese |last6=Koós |first6=Judit |last7=Nagy |first7=Károly |last8=Zeke |first8=Tamás |title=HVS-I polymorphism screening of ancient human mitochondrial DNA provides evidence for N9a discontinuity and East Asian haplogroups in the Neolithic Hungary |journal=Journal of Human Genetics |date=November 2011 |volume=56 |issue=11 |pages=784–796 |doi=10.1038/jhg.2011.103 |pmid=21918529 |s2cid=20827921 |language=en |issn=1435-232X|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Derenko |first1=Miroslava |last2=Malyarchuk |first2=Boris |last3=Grzybowski |first3=Tomasz |last4=Denisova |first4=Galina |last5=Rogalla |first5=Urszula |last6=Perkova |first6=Maria |last7=Dambueva |first7=Irina |last8=Zakharov |first8=Ilia |title=Origin and Post-Glacial Dispersal of Mitochondrial DNA Haplogroups C and D in Northern Asia |journal=PLOS ONE |date=21 December 2010 |volume=5 |issue=12 |pages=e15214 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0015214 |pmid=21203537 |pmc=3006427 |language=en |issn=1932-6203 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2010PLoSO...515214D }}</ref>
+Die EEF-Abstammung ist nach wie vor in ganz Europa weit verbreitet und reicht von etwa 60 % in der Nähe des [[Mittelmeer|Mittelmeers]] (mit einem Spitzenwert von 65 %) <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fernandes |first=Daniel M. |last2=Mittnik |first2=Alissa |last3=Olalde |first3=Iñigo |last4=Lazaridis |first4=Iosif |last5=Cheronet |first5=Olivia |last6=Rohland |first6=Nadin |last7=Mallick |first7=Swapan |last8=Bernardos |first8=Rebecca |last9=Broomandkhoshbacht |first9=Nasreen |last10=Carlsson |first10=Jens |last11=Culleton |first11=Brendan J. |last12=Ferry |first12=Matthew |last13=Gamarra |first13=Beatriz |last14=Lari |first14=Martina |last15=Mah |first15=Matthew |last16=Michel |first16=Megan |last17=Modi |first17=Alessandra |last18=Novak |first18=Mario |last19=Oppenheimer |first19=Jonas |last20=Sirak |first20=Kendra A. |last21=Stewardson |first21=Kristin |last22=Mandl |first22=Kirsten |last23=Schattke |first23=Constanze |last24=Özdoğan |first24=Kadir T. |last25=Lucci |first25=Michaela |last26=Gasperetti |first26=Gabriella |last27=Candilio |first27=Francesca |last28=Salis |first28=Gianfranca |last29=Vai |first29=Stefania |last30=Camarós |first30=Edgard |title=The spread of steppe and Iranian-related ancestry in the islands of the western Mediterranean |work=Nature Ecology & Evolution |issue=3 |volume=4 |pages=334–345 |year=2020 |doi=10.1038/s41559-020-1102-0 |pmid=32094539 |bibcode=2020NatEE...4..334F |pmc=7080320}}</ref> auf der Insel [[Sardinien]]) und geht nach Norden hin auf etwa 10 % in [[Skandinavien|Nordskandinavien]] zurück. Jüngeren Studien zufolge liegt der höchste EEF-Anteil bei modernen Europäern zwischen 67 % und über 80 % bei modernen Sarden, [[Italiener|Italienern]], [[Griechen]] und [[Iberer|Iberern]], während der niedrigste EEF-Anteil bei modernen [[Finnen]], [[Litauer|Litauern]] und [[Letten]] bei etwa 35-40 % liegt.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Christina |first=Clemente, Florian Unterlaender, Martina Dolgova, Olga Amorim, Carlos Eduardo G. Coroado-Santos, Francisco Neuenschwander, Samuel Ganiatsou, Elissavet Davalos, Diana I. Cruz Anchieri, Lucas Michaud, Frederic Winkelbach, Laura Bloecher, Jens Cardenas, Yami Ommar Arizmendi da Mota, Barbara Sousa Kalliga, Eleni Souleles, Angelos Kontopoulos, Ioannis Karamitrou-Mentessidi, Georgia Philaniotou, Olga Sampson, Adamantios Theodorou, Dimitra Tsipopoulou, Metaxia Akamatis, Ioannis Halstead, Paul Kotsakis, Kostas Urem-Kotsou, Dushka Panagiotopoulos, Diamantis Ziota, Christina Triantaphyllou, Sevasti Delaneau, Olivier Jensen, Jeffrey D. Victor Moreno-Mayar, J. Burger, Joachim Sousa, Vitor C. Lao, Oscar Malaspinas, Anna-Sapfo Papageorgopoulou |title=The genomic history of the Aegean palatial civilizations |date=2021 |page=41 |oclc=1263227362 |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1263227362}}</ref>
-During the [[Chalcolithic]] and early [[Bronze Age]], the EEF-derived cultures of Europe were overwhelmed by successive invasions of [[Western Steppe Herders]] (WSHs) from the [[Pontic–Caspian steppe]], who carried roughly equal amounts of [[Eastern Hunter-Gatherer]] (EHG) and [[Caucasus Hunter-Gatherer]] (CHG) ancestries. These migrations led to EEF [[paternal]] DNA lineages in Europe being almost entirely replaced with WSH-derived paternal DNA (mainly subclades of EHG-derived [[Haplogroup R1b|R1b]] and [[Haplogroup R1a|R1a]]). EEF [[maternal]] DNA (mainly haplogroup N) was also substantially replaced, being supplanted by steppe lineages,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Crabtree |first1=Pam J. |last2=Bogucki |first2=Peter |title=European Archaeology as Anthropology: Essays in Memory of Bernard Wailes |date=25 January 2017 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-1-934536-90-2 |page=55 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2A76DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA55 |language=en}}p.55: "In addition, uniparental markers changed suddenly as mtDNA N1a and Y haplogroup G2a, which had been very common in the EEF agricultural population, were replaced by Y haplogroups R1a and R1b and by a variety of mtDNA haplogroups typical of the Steppe Yamnaya population. The uniparental markers show that the migrants included both men and women from the steppes."</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Översti |first1=Sanni |last2=Majander |first2=Kerttu |last3=Salmela |first3=Elina |last4=Salo |first4=Kati |last5=Arppe |first5=Laura |last6=Belskiy |first6=Stanislav |last7=Etu-Sihvola |first7=Heli |last8=Laakso |first8=Ville |last9=Mikkola |first9=Esa |last10=Pfrengle |first10=Saskia |last11=Putkonen |first11=Mikko |last12=Taavitsainen |first12=Jussi-Pekka |last13=Vuoristo |first13=Katja |last14=Wessman |first14=Anna |last15=Sajantila |first15=Antti |last16=Oinonen |first16=Markku |last17=Haak |first17=Wolfgang |last18=Schuenemann |first18=Verena J. |last19=Krause |first19=Johannes |last20=Palo |first20=Jukka U. |last21=Onkamo |first21=Päivi |title=Human mitochondrial DNA lineages in Iron-Age Fennoscandia suggest incipient admixture and eastern introduction of farming-related maternal ancestry |journal=Scientific Reports |date=15 November 2019 |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=16883 |doi=10.1038/s41598-019-51045-8 |pmid=31729399 |pmc=6858343 |bibcode=2019NatSR...916883O |language=en |issn=2045-2322}} "The subsequent spread of Yamnaya-related people and Corded Ware Culture in the late Neolithic and Bronze Age were accompanied with the increase of haplogroups I, U2 and T1 in Europe (See8 and references therein)."</ref> suggesting the migrations involved both males and females from the steppe.{{sfn|Juras et al.|2018|ps=: We identified, for the first time in ancient populations, the rare mitochondrial haplogroup X4 in two Bronze Age Catacomb culture-associated individuals. Genetic similarity analyses show close maternal genetic affinities between populations associated with both eastern and Baltic Corded Ware culture, and the Yamnaya horizon, in contrast to larger genetic differentiation between populations associated with western Corded Ware culture and the Yamnaya horizon. This indicates that females with steppe ancestry contributed to the formation of populations associated with the eastern Corded Ware culture while more local people, likely of Neolithic farmer ancestry, contributed to the formation of populations associated with western Corded Ware culture.}}{{sfn|Olalde et al.|2019|pp=1-2}}
+== Physisches Erscheinungsbild ==
-A 2017 study found that Bronze Age European with steppe ancestry had elevated EEF ancestry on the X chromosome, suggesting a sex bias, in which Steppe ancestry was inherited by more male than female ancestors.{{sfn|Goldberg et al.|2017}} However, this study's results [[replication crisis|could not be replicated]] in a follow-up study by Iosif Lazaridis and [[David Reich (geneticist)|David Reich]], suggesting that the authors had mis-measured the admixture proportions of their sample.<ref name="Lazaridis Reich 2017 p. ">{{cite journal | last1=Lazaridis | first1=Iosif | last2=Reich | first2=David | title=Failure to replicate a genetic signal for sex bias in the steppe migration into central Europe | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume=114 | issue=20 | date=5 May 2017 | pages=E3873–E3874 | issn=0027-8424 | doi=10.1073/pnas.1704308114 | pmid=28476764 | pmc=5441797 | doi-access=free | bibcode=2017PNAS..114E3873L }}</ref>
+[[Datei:Homo_sapiens_-_Neolithic_-_reconstruction_-_MUSE.jpg|mini|Rekonstruktion eines neolithischen Bauern aus Europa, [[Museo delle Scienze]] in [[Trient]]]]
+Die europäischen Jäger und Sammler waren viel größer als die EEF, und die Verdrängung der europäischen Jäger und Sammler durch die EEF führte zu einer dramatischen Abnahme der genetischen Körpergröße in ganz Europa. In den späteren Phasen des Neolithikums nahm die Körpergröße der europäischen Bauern zu, wahrscheinlich aufgrund der zunehmenden Vermischung mit Jägern und Sammlern. Während des Spätneolithikums und der Bronzezeit ging eine weitere Verringerung der EEF-Abstammung in Europa aufgrund der Migration von Völkern mit Abstammung aus der Steppe mit einer weiteren Zunahme der Körpergröße einher.<ref>{{Internetquelle |autor=Martiniano, Rui |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5531429/ |titel=The population genomics of archaeological transition in west Iberia: Investigation of ancient substructure using imputation and haplotype-based methods |hrsg=PLOS Genetics |sprache=en |abruf=2024-04-06}}</ref> Die hohe Häufigkeit der EEF-Abstammung in Südeuropa könnte teilweise die kleinere Körpergröße der Südeuropäer im Vergleich zu den Nordeuropäern erklären, die einen höheren Anteil an Abstammung aus der Steppe aufweisen.
+Es wird angenommen, dass die frühen europäischen Bauern meist dunkelhaarig, dunkeläugig und hellhäutig waren,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lalueza-Fox |first=Carles |title=Inequality: A Genetic History |publisher=MIT Press |date=1 February 2022 |language=en |page=29 |isbn=978-0-262-04678-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xLZNEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA29}} "p.29: "Physically, early farmers from Anatolia were different from those foragers; they had brown eyes but fair skin...."</ref> obwohl dunkler als die meisten modernen Europäer.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wang |first=Ke |last2=Prüfer |first2=Kay |last3=Krause-Kyora |first3=Ben |last4=Childebayeva |first4=Ainash |last5=Schuenemann |first5=Verena J. |last6=Coia |first6=Valentina |last7=Maixner |first7=Frank |last8=Zink |first8=Albert |last9=Schiffels |first9=Stephan |last10=Krause |first10=Johannes |title=High-coverage genome of the Tyrolean Iceman reveals unusually high Anatolian farmer ancestry |work=Cell Genomics |issue=9 |volume=3 |pages=100377 |date=2023-08-16 |issn=2666-979X |doi=10.1016/j.xgen.2023.100377 |pmid=37719142 |pmc=10504632}}</ref> Eine Studie über verschiedene EEF-Überreste in ganz Europa ergab, dass sie eine "mittlere bis helle Hautfarbe" hatten.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Marchi |first=Nina |last2=Winkelbach |first2=Laura |last3=Schulz |first3=Ilektra |last4=Brami |first4=Maxime |last5=Hofmanová |first5=Zuzana |last6=Blöcher |first6=Jens |last7=Reyna-Blanco |first7=Carlos S. |last8=Diekmann |first8=Yoan |last9=Thiéry |first9=Alexandre |last10=Kapopoulou |first10=Adamandia |last11=Link |first11=Vivian |last12=Piuz |first12=Valérie |last13=Kreutzer |first13=Susanne |last14=Figarska |first14=Sylwia M. |last15=Ganiatsou |first15=Elissavet |title=The genomic origins of the world's first farmers |work=Cell |issue=11 |volume=185 |pages=1842–1859.e18 |quote=We find that the vast majority of early farmers in our dataset had intermediate to light skin complexion |date=May 2022 |issn=0092-8674 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2022.04.008 |pmid=35561686 |pmc=9166250 |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2022.04.008}}</ref>
-EEF ancestry remains widespread throughout Europe, ranging from about 60% near the [[Mediterranean Sea]] (with a peak of 65% <ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1038/s41559-020-1102-0 | title=The spread of steppe and Iranian-related ancestry in the islands of the western Mediterranean | year=2020 | last1=Fernandes | first1=Daniel M. | last2=Mittnik | first2=Alissa | last3=Olalde | first3=Iñigo | last4=Lazaridis | first4=Iosif | last5=Cheronet | first5=Olivia | last6=Rohland | first6=Nadin | last7=Mallick | first7=Swapan | last8=Bernardos | first8=Rebecca | last9=Broomandkhoshbacht | first9=Nasreen | last10=Carlsson | first10=Jens | last11=Culleton | first11=Brendan J. | last12=Ferry | first12=Matthew | last13=Gamarra | first13=Beatriz | last14=Lari | first14=Martina | last15=Mah | first15=Matthew | last16=Michel | first16=Megan | last17=Modi | first17=Alessandra | last18=Novak | first18=Mario | last19=Oppenheimer | first19=Jonas | last20=Sirak | first20=Kendra A. | last21=Stewardson | first21=Kristin | last22=Mandl | first22=Kirsten | last23=Schattke | first23=Constanze | last24=Özdoğan | first24=Kadir T. | last25=Lucci | first25=Michaela | last26=Gasperetti | first26=Gabriella | last27=Candilio | first27=Francesca | last28=Salis | first28=Gianfranca | last29=Vai | first29=Stefania | last30=Camarós | first30=Edgard | journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution | volume=4 | issue=3 | pages=334–345 | pmid=32094539 | pmc=7080320 | bibcode=2020NatEE...4..334F | display-authors=1 }}</ref> in the island of [[Sardinian people|Sardinia]]) and diminishing northwards to about 10% in northern Scandinavia. According to more recent studies the highest EEF ancestry found in modern Europeans ranges from 67% to over 80% in modern Sardinians, Italians, Greeks and Iberians, with the lowest EEF ancestry found in modern Europeans ranging around 35-40% in modern Finns, Lithuanians and Latvians.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Allentoft |first1=Morten E. |last2=Sikora |first2=Martin |last3=Refoyo-Martínez |first3=Alba |last4=Irving-Pease |first4=Evan K. |last5=Fischer |first5=Anders |last6=Barrie |first6=William |last7=Ingason |first7=Andrés |last8=Stenderup |first8=Jesper |last9=Sjögren |first9=Karl-Göran |last10=Pearson |first10=Alice |last11=Mota |first11=Barbara |last12=Paulsson |first12=Bettina Schulz |last13=Halgren |first13=Alma |last14=Macleod |first14=Ruairidh |last15=Jørkov |first15=Marie Louise Schjellerup |date=5 May 2022 |title=Population Genomics of Stone Age Eurasia |url=https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.05.04.490594v1 |language=en |pages=2022.05.04.490594 |doi=10.1101/2022.05.04.490594|s2cid=248563160 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Christina |first=Clemente, Florian Unterlaender, Martina Dolgova, Olga Amorim, Carlos Eduardo G. Coroado-Santos, Francisco Neuenschwander, Samuel Ganiatsou, Elissavet Davalos, Diana I. Cruz Anchieri, Lucas Michaud, Frederic Winkelbach, Laura Bloecher, Jens Cardenas, Yami Ommar Arizmendi da Mota, Barbara Sousa Kalliga, Eleni Souleles, Angelos Kontopoulos, Ioannis Karamitrou-Mentessidi, Georgia Philaniotou, Olga Sampson, Adamantios Theodorou, Dimitra Tsipopoulou, Metaxia Akamatis, Ioannis Halstead, Paul Kotsakis, Kostas Urem-Kotsou, Dushka Panagiotopoulos, Diamantis Ziota, Christina Triantaphyllou, Sevasti Delaneau, Olivier Jensen, Jeffrey D. Victor Moreno-Mayar, J. Burger, Joachim Sousa, Vitor C. Lao, Oscar Malaspinas, Anna-Sapfo Papageorgopoulou |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1263227362 |title=The genomic history of the Aegean palatial civilizations |date=2021 |pages=41 |oclc=1263227362}}</ref>
+== Siehe auch ==
-==Physical appearance and allele frequency==
-[[File:Homo sapiens - Neolithic - reconstruction - MUSE.jpg|thumb|upright|Reconstruction of a Neolithic farmer from Europe, [[Museo delle Scienze|Science Museum]] in Trento]]
-European hunter-gatherers were much [[Human height|taller]] than EEFs, and the replacement of European hunter-gatherers by EEFs resulted in a dramatic decrease in genetic height throughout Europe. During the later phases of the Neolithic, height increased among European farmers, probably due to increasing admixture with hunter-gatherers. During the Late Neolithic and Bronze Age, further reductions of EEF ancestry in Europe due to migrations of peoples with steppe-related ancestry is associated with further increases in height.{{sfn|Martiniano et al.|2017|p=9}} High frequencies of EEF ancestry in Southern Europe might partly explain the shortness of Southern Europeans as compared to Northern Europeans, who carry increased levels of steppe-related ancestry.<ref>{{harvnb|Mathieson et al.|2015|p=4}}. "[R]esults suggest that the modern South-North gradient in height across Europe is due to both increased steppe ancestry in northern populations, and selection for decreased height in Early Neolithic migrants to southern Europe."</ref>
+* [[Landwirtschaftliche Revolution]]
-The Early European Farmers are believed to have been mostly dark haired and dark eyed, and [[Light skin|light skinned]],<ref>{{harvnb|Reich|2018|p=96}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Lalueza-Fox |first1=Carles |title=Inequality: A Genetic History |date=1 February 2022 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-04678-7 |page=29 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xLZNEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 |language=en}} "p.29: "Physically, early farmers from Anatolia were different from those foragers; they had brown eyes but fair skin...."</ref> although darker than most modern Europeans.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Ke |last2=Prüfer |first2=Kay |last3=Krause-Kyora |first3=Ben |last4=Childebayeva |first4=Ainash |last5=Schuenemann |first5=Verena J. |last6=Coia |first6=Valentina |last7=Maixner |first7=Frank |last8=Zink |first8=Albert |last9=Schiffels |first9=Stephan |last10=Krause |first10=Johannes |date=2023-08-16 |title=High-coverage genome of the Tyrolean Iceman reveals unusually high Anatolian farmer ancestry |journal=Cell Genomics |volume=3 |issue=9 |pages=100377 |doi=10.1016/j.xgen.2023.100377 |pmid=37719142 |pmc=10504632 |issn=2666-979X}}</ref> A study on different EEF remains throughout Europe concluded that they had "intermediate to light skin complexion".<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Marchi |first1=Nina |last2=Winkelbach |first2=Laura |last3=Schulz |first3=Ilektra |last4=Brami |first4=Maxime |last5=Hofmanová |first5=Zuzana |last6=Blöcher |first6=Jens |last7=Reyna-Blanco |first7=Carlos S. |last8=Diekmann |first8=Yoan |last9=Thiéry |first9=Alexandre |last10=Kapopoulou |first10=Adamandia |last11=Link |first11=Vivian |last12=Piuz |first12=Valérie |last13=Kreutzer |first13=Susanne |last14=Figarska |first14=Sylwia M. |last15=Ganiatsou |first15=Elissavet |date=May 2022 |title=The genomic origins of the world's first farmers |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2022.04.008 |journal=Cell |volume=185 |issue=11 |pages=1842–1859.e18 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2022.04.008 |issn=0092-8674 |pmc=9166250 |pmid=35561686 |quote=We find that the vast majority of early farmers in our dataset had intermediate to light skin complexion}}</ref> A 2024 study found that risk alleles for [[Mood disorder|mood]]-related phenotypes are enriched in the ancestry of Neolithic farmers.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Irving-Pease |first1=Evan K. |last2=Refoyo-Martínez |first2=Alba |last3=Barrie |first3=William |last4=Ingason |first4=Andrés |last5=Pearson |first5=Alice |last6=Fischer |first6=Anders |last7=Sjögren |first7=Karl-Göran |last8=Halgren |first8=Alma S. |last9=Macleod |first9=Ruairidh |last10=Demeter |first10=Fabrice |last11=Henriksen |first11=Rasmus A. |last12=Vimala |first12=Tharsika |last13=McColl |first13=Hugh |last14=Vaughn |first14=Andrew H. |last15=Speidel |first15=Leo |date=January 2024 |title=The selection landscape and genetic legacy of ancient Eurasians |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=625 |issue=7994 |pages=312–320 |doi=10.1038/s41586-023-06705-1 |pmid=38200293 |pmc=10781624 |issn=1476-4687}}</ref>
+* [[Populationsgenetik und Anthropologie der Linearbandkeramischen Kultur]]
+* [[Besiedlungsgeschichte Europas in der Jungsteinzeit]]
+== Einzelnachweise ==
-==Studies==
+[[Kategorie:Jungsteinzeit (Europa)]]
-{{cleanup|reason=Instead of describing individual papers, incorporate them into the article body.|date=September 2023}}
-=== Ancient human genomes suggest three ancestral populations for present-day Europeans ===
-{{harvnb|Lazaridis et al.|2014}} identified Early European Farmers (EEFs) as a distinct ancestral component in a study published in ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' in 2014. Along with [[Ancient North Eurasian]]s (ANEs) and [[Western Hunter-Gatherer]]s, EEFs were determined to be one of the three major ancestral populations of modern-Europeans.<ref>{{harvnb|Lazaridis et al.|2014|p=409}}. "Most present Europeans derive from at least three highly differentiated populations: West European Hunter-Gatherers (WHG), who contributed ancestry to all Europeans but not to Near Easterners; Ancient North Eurasians (ANE) related to Upper Paleolithic Siberians, who contributed to both Europeans and Near Easterners; and Early European Farmers (EEF), who were mainly of Near Eastern origin but also harbored WHG-related ancestry."</ref> About 44% of EEF ancestry was determined to come from a "[[Basal Eurasian]]" population that split prior to the diversification of other non-African lineages. [[Ötzi]] was identified as EEF. EEFs were determined to be largely of [[Near East]]ern origin, with slight WHG admixture. It was through their EEF ancestors that most modern Southern Europeans acquired their WHG ancestry.{{sfn|Lazaridis et al.|2014|p=409}} EEF ancestry in modern Europe ranged from 30% in the [[Baltic States]] to up to 90% near the [[Mediterranean Sea]].{{sfn|Lazaridis et al.|2014|p=411}}
-=== Ancient mitochondrial DNA from the northern fringe of the Neolithic farming expansion in Europe sheds light on the dispersion process ===
-{{harvnb|Malmström et al.|2015}} found that the people of the [[Funnelbeaker culture]] of southern [[Scandinavia]] were largely of EEF descent, with slight hunter-gatherer admixture, suggesting that the emergence of the Neolithic in Scandinavia was a result of human migration from the south. The Funnelbeakers were found to be genetically highly different from people of the neighboring hunter-gatherer [[Pitted Ware culture]]; the latter carried no EEF admixture and were instead genetically similar to other European hunter-gatherers.{{sfn|Malmström et al.|2015|p=1}}
-=== Massive migration from the steppe was a source for Indo-European languages in Europe ===
-{{harvnb|Haak et al.|2015}} found that the amount of WHG ancestry among EEFs had significantly increased during the Middle Neolithic, documenting a WHG resurgence. It was found that EEF [[Y-DNA]] was typically types [[Haplogroup G-M201|haplogroup G2a]], while their [[mtDNA]] was diverse. During the Late Neolithic and [[Early Bronze Age]], G2a nearly disappears from Europe and is replaced with types of [[Haplogroup R1b|R1b]] and [[Haplogroup R1a|R1a]], indicating a massive migration of people out of the [[Pontic steppe]].<ref>{{harvnb|Haak et al.|2015|p=4}}. "Y chromosome haplogroup G2a, common in early central European farmers, almost disappear during the Late Neolithic and Bronze Age, when they are largely replaced by Y haplogroups R1a and R1b..."</ref> It has been suggested that this migration might be connected to the spread of [[Indo-European languages]] in Europe.{{sfn|Haak et al.|2015|p=1}}
-Autosomal EEF ancestry in modern Europeans was calculated, with Southern Europeans possessing the highest amounts of EEF ancestry ranging from 65% to 90%.
-===A common genetic origin for early farmers from Mediterranean Cardial and Central European LBK cultures ===
-[[File:European-middle-neolithic-en.svg|thumb|Neolithic cultures in Europe in c. 4500–4000 BC]]
-{{harvnb|Olalde et al.|2015}} found that the people of the [[Linear Pottery culture]] (LBK) in Central Europe and people of the [[Cardial Ware]] culture along the [[Mediterranean]] coast were descended from a homogenous community of EEFs with a common origin in the Balkans. EEF ancestors of the LBK people were expected to have migrated into Central Europe along the [[Danube]] river, while EEF ancestors of the Cardials were expected to have migrated along the Mediterranean coast. The Cardials appeared to have acquired a significant amount of hunter-gatherer ancestry during this process. Among modern populations, [[Sardinians]] and [[Basque people]] were found to harbor the largest amount of EEF ancestry, which they probably acquired through descent from the Cardials.{{sfn|Olalde et al.|2015|pp=1, 4-5}}
-=== Upper Palaeolithic genomes reveal deep roots of modern Eurasians ===
-{{harvnb|Jones et al.|2015}} found that the ancestors of the EEF had split off from WHG around 43,000 BC, possibly through a migration of WHG into Europe.<ref>{{harvnb|Jones et al.|2015|p=5}}. "Given their geographic origin, it seems likely that CHG and EF are the descendants of early colonists from Africa who stopped south of the Caucasus, in an area stretching south to the Levant and possibly east towards Central and South Asia. WHG, on the other hand, are likely the descendants of a wave that expanded further into Europe."</ref> Around 23,000 BC, EEFs ancestors had again split into EEFs and [[Caucasian Hunter-Gatherer]]s (CHGs).<ref>{{harvnb|Jones et al.|2015|p=1}}. "We show that CHG belong to a new, distinct ancient clade that split from WHG ~45 kya and from Neolithic farmer ancestors ~25 kya."</ref>
-===Genome-wide patterns of selection in 230 ancient Eurasians===
-{{harvnb|Mathieson et al.|2015}} found EEFs to be closely genetically related to [[Neolithic]] farmers of [[Anatolia]]. EEFs were found to have 7–11% more WHG ancestry than their Anatolian ancestors. This suggested that the EEFs belonged to a common ancestral population before their expansion into Europe. With regards [[Y-DNA]], EEF males typically carried types of G2a. The study found that most modern Europeans can be modeled as a mixture of WHGs, EEFs and descendants of the [[Yamnaya culture]].<ref>{{harvnb|Mathieson et al.|2015|p=2}}. "Most present-day Europeans can be modeled as a mixture of three ancient populations related to Mesolithic hunter-gatherers (WHG), early farmers (EEF) and steppe pastoralists (Yamnaya)..."</ref> The Anatolian ancestors of the EEFs were found to be genetically different from modern peoples of the [[Near East]], and were instead shifted towards Europe.<ref>{{harvnb|Mathieson et al.|2015|p=2}}. "Anatolian Neolithic samples do not resemble any present-day Near Eastern populations but are shifted towards Europe, clustering with Neolithic European farmers (EEF) from Germany, Hungary, and Spain."</ref>
-Middle Neolithic and Chalcolithic peoples of Iberia were found to be genetically similar to each other, and harbored reduced levels of EEF and increased levels of WHG ancestry compared to Early Neolithic individuals of the region.{{sfn|Mathieson et al.|2015|p=2}} Peoples of the [[Srubnaya culture]] and the earlier [[Sintashta culture]] were found to harbor c. 15% EEF ancestry, suggesting that these cultures emerged through the eastward migration of Central European peoples with steppe-related ancestry.{{sfn|Mathieson et al.|2015|p=2}}
-===The neolithic transition in the Baltic was not driven by admixture with early European farmers and extensive farming in Estonia started through a sex-biased migration from the steppe===
-{{harvnb|Jones et al.|2017}} found no evidence of EEF admixture among Neolithic populations of the eastern Baltic and the [[East European forest steppe]], suggesting that the hunter-gatherers of these regions avoided genetic replacement while adopting Neolithic cultural traditions. {{sfn|Jones et al.|2017|pp=576, 579-581}} {{harvnb|Saag et al.|2017}} found that the people of the subsequent [[Corded Ware culture]] in the eastern Baltic carried steppe and hunter-gatherer-related paternal and autosomal ancestry, and some EEF maternal ancestry.{{sfn|Saag et al.|2017|p=1}}
-===Ancient X chromosomes reveal contrasting sex bias in Neolithic and Bronze Age Eurasian migrations===
-{{harvnb|Goldberg et al.|2017}} found no significant evidence sex-bias in the admixure between EEFs and hunter-gatherers during the initial EEF expansion into Europe, although a larger number of hunter-gatherer females may have been incorporated into EEF communities during this phase. During Late Neolithic and Bronze Age however, a dramatic sex-bias was detected, suggesting heavy mixing between migrating males with steppe-related ancestry and local females with EEF ancestry.{{sfn|Goldberg et al.|2017|p=2657}}
-===Parallel palaeogenomic transects reveal complex genetic history of early European farmers===
-{{harvnb|Lipson et al.|2017}} examined the genetic history of EEFs. It was found that the initial westward spread of the EEFs from the Balkans was accompanied only by slight admixture with hunter-gatherer populations. Peoples of Middle Neolithic and Chalcolithic Iberia were found to carry about 75% EEF ancestry and 25% WHG ancestry, more WHG ancestry than Early Neolithic Iberians. Significant reductions in EEF ancestry during the later phases of the Neolithic was also observed in Central Europe, particularly in the northern and eastern parts of the region.{{sfn|Lipson et al.|2017|pp=3-4}}
-===The genomic history of Southeastern Europe===
-[[File:European-late-neolithic-english.svg|thumb|Neolithic cultures in Europe in c. 4000–3500 BC]]
-{{harvnb|Mathieson et al.|2018}} found that the EEFs had initially spread agriculture throughout Europe largely without admixture with local WHGs. It was proposed that this process had started through a single massive migration from Anatolia into the Balkans in the 7th millennium BC. The EEFs had subsequently split into two wings, one which spread northwards along the [[Danube]] through the [[Linear Pottery culture]], and another which spread westward across the [[Mediterranean]] coast through the [[Cardial Ware]] culture. By 5600 BC, these cultures had brought agriculture to [[Iberia]] and [[Central Europe]].
-It was found that there was a significant increase in hunter-gatherer ancestry in Iberia, Central Europe and the Balkans during the Middle Neolithic.<ref>{{harvnb|Mathieson et al.|2018|p=1}}. "We provide the first evidence for sex-biased admixture between hunter-gatherers and farmers in Europe, showing that the Middle Neolithic "resurgence" of hunter-gatherer-related ancestry in central Europe and Iberia was driven more by males than by females."</ref> While the slight mixture between EEFs and hunter-gatherers in the Early Neolithic appeared to have happened without sex-bias, increases in hunter-gatherer ancestry during the Middle Neolithic appeared to be largely the result of males with hunter-gatherer ancestry mixing with females with EEF ancestry. This conclusion was derived from the fact that examined Middle Neolithic Europeans overwhelmingly carried hunter-gatherer paternal lineages and EEF maternal lineages. Hunter-gatherer ancestry was even higher among Late Neolithic samples from the [[Cucuteni–Trypillia culture]], [[Funnelbeaker culture]] and [[Globular Amphora culture]], which carried about 75-80% EEF ancestry while being dominated by hunter-gatherer paternal lineages.{{sfn|Mathieson et al.|2018|p=4}}
-In the southern Balkans, the Middle Neolithic farmers display reduced levels of EEF ancestry increased amounts of ancestry related to [[Caucasian Hunter-Gatherer]]s (CHGs), suggesting further gene flow from Anatolia, which continued into the [[Bronze Age]].{{sfn|Mathieson et al.|2018|p=5}}
-===Ancient genomes from North Africa evidence prehistoric migrations to the Maghreb from both the Levant and Europe===
-{{harvnb|Fregel et al.|2018}} estimated that examined individuals at the Late Neolithic site of [[Kelif el Boroud]], [[Morocco]], dated c. 3000 BC, carried about 50% EEF ancestry and 50% North African ancestry, were genetically predisposed to have light skin and light eyes, and entirely carried paternal and maternal lineages associated with EEFs.{{sfn|Fregel et al.|2018|p=6775}} It was suggested that EEF ancestry had entered North Africa through Cardial Ware colonists from Iberia sometime between 5000 and 3000 BC.{{sfn|Fregel et al.|2018|p=6774}} The examined samples of Kelif el Boroud were found to be closely related to [[Guanches]] of the [[Canary Islands]].{{sfn|Fregel et al.|2018|p=6776}} Additional amounts of EEF ancestry may have been brought to North Africa by the [[Bell Beaker culture]].{{sfn|Fregel et al.|2018|p=6776}} The authors of the study suggested that the [[Berbers]] of Morocco carried a substantial amount of EEF ancestry before the establishment of [[Roman colonies in Berber Africa]].{{sfn|Fregel et al.|2018|p=6776}}
-===Mitochondrial genomes reveal an east to west cline of steppe ancestry in Corded Ware populations===
-{{harvnb|Juras et al.|2018}} found that while females with steppe-related ancestry contributed to the formation of the Corded Ware culture in the eastern Baltic, the maternal lineages of Corded Ware culture on its western fringes were largely of EEF origin, suggesting that mixing that the westward expansion of the Corded Ware culture was characterized by the mixing of males with steppe-related ancestry and women with EEF ancestry.{{sfn|Juras et al.|2018|p=1}}
-===The genomic history of the Iberian Peninsula over the past 8000 years===
-{{harvnb|Olalde et al.|2019}} examined the [[genetic history of the Iberian Peninsula]]. It was found that the peoples of Early Neolithic Iberia were largely of EEF ancestry. Peoples of the Middle Neolithic and Copper Age were found to harbor increased levels of WHG ancestry as compared to the Early Neolithic. Hunter-gatherer admixture was found to be higher in northern and central Iberia. Olalde argues that during the Bronze Age Iberia experienced a significant genetic turnover, with 100% of the paternal ancestry and 40% of the overall ancestry being replaced by peoples with [[steppe-related ancestry]].{{sfn|Olalde et al.|2019|pp=1-2}}
-===Megalithic tombs in western and northern Neolithic Europe were linked to a kindred society===
-{{harvnb|Sánchez-Quinto et al.|2019}} examined the remains of 24 individuals buried in [[megalith]]s in northern and western Europe during the Middle Neolithic. They were found to be largely of EEF ancestry, although with significant amount of hunter-gatherer admixture, which appeared to be male-derived. The 17 samples of [[Y-DNA]] extracted belonged exclusively to the paternal haplogroup [[Haplogroup I-M170|I]], particularly [[Haplogroup I-M438|I2]], which are lineages associated with European hunter-gatherers. The evidence suggested that these societies were strongly [[patrilineal]] and socially stratified.{{sfn|Sánchez-Quinto et al.|2019|p=9471, 9473}}
-===Ancient genomes indicate population replacement in Early Neolithic Britain===
-{{harvnb|Brace et al.|2019}} found that the farmers of the [[Neolithic British Isles]] had entered the region through a mass migration c. 4000 BC. They carried about 80% EEF and 20% WHG ancestry and were found to be closely related to Neolithic peoples of Iberia, which implies that they were descended from agriculturalists who had moved westwards from the Balkans along the Mediterranean coast. The arrival of farming populations led to the almost complete replacement of the native WHGs of the British Isles, who did not experience a genetic resurgence in the succeeding centuries.{{sfn|Brace et al.|2019|p=1}}
-===Genetic history from the Middle Neolithic to present on the Mediterranean island of Sardinia===
-{{harvnb|Marcus et al.|2020}} found that people of the Bronze Age [[Nuragic civilization]] of [[Sardinia]] carried about 80% EEF ancestry and 20% WHG ancestry. Strong evidence of genetic continuity was detected between Neolithic Sardinians and Bronze Age Sardinians.{{sfn|Marcus et al.|2020|p=1}}
-===A massacre of early Neolithic farmers in the high Pyrenees at Els Trocs, Spain===
-{{harvnb|Alt et al.|2020}} examined the remains of 9 farmers who had been systematically massacred at the site of [[Els Trocs]], Spain c. 5300 BC. They were found to be genetically different from contemporary populations of Iberia, and were instead more similar to EEFs of Central Europe. The authors of the study suggested that they were migrant farmers from Central Europe who had been victims of an ethnic cleansing carried out by local hunter-gatherer groups, or by other (either local or also migrant) farmer groups seeking to defend their territories.{{sfn|Alt et al.|2020}}
-===Ancient genome-wide DNA from France highlights the complexity of interactions between Mesolithic hunter-gatherers and Neolithic farmers===
-{{harvnb|Rivollat et al.|2020}} found that Neolithic farmers in Western Europe had higher amounts of WHG ancestry than their Central European contemporaries.{{sfn|Rivollat et al.|2020|p=1}} Neolithic farmers of France and Iberia were found to be closely related to contemporary farmers of the [[British Isles]], with whom they shared a relatively large amount of WHG ancestry.{{sfn|Rivollat et al.|2020|p=7}} Examined farmers of Early Neolithic southern France exclusively carried the hunter-gatherer-derived paternal haplogroup I2, while the maternal lineages were mainly of EEF origin. Levels of Hunter-gatherer admixture among early farmers of France increased further during Middle Neolithic, reaching as high as 30% at some sites entirely dominated by hunter-gatherer paternal lineages. It was suggested that the increase was a result of migrations towards the northeast by farmers with elevated levels of hunter-gatherer ancestry.{{sfn|Rivollat et al.|2020|pp=3-4}}
-===Ancient genomes from present-day France unveil 7,000 years of its demographic history===
-{{harvnb|Brunel et al.|2020}} found that earliest farmers of modern-day [[France]] were genetically similar to the Central European agriculturalists of the Linear Pottery Culture. It was found that the observed resurgence of WHG ancestry among European farmers in the Middle Neolithic happened very early and was relatively large in modern-day France.{{sfn|Brunel et al.|2020|pp=3-4}}
-===A dynastic elite in monumental Neolithic society===
-{{harvnb|Cassidy et al.|2020}} examined a large number of individuals buried in [[Prehistoric Ireland|Neolithic Ireland]]. They were found to be largely of EEF ancestry (with WHG admixture), and were closely related to peoples of Neolithic Britain and Iberia. It was found that the Neolithic peoples of Ireland had almost entirely replaced the native [[Irish Hunter-Gatherer]]s through a rapid maritime colonization. Peoples of the Irish and British Neolithic carried almost entirely the paternal haplogroup [[Haplogroup I-M438#I-M284|I-M284]] (a WHG Y-haplogroup{{citation needed|date=December 2022}}), suggesting that these societies were strongly [[patrilineal]]. A Neolithic royal buried at [[Newgrange]] was found to be highly inbred and possibly the product of an incestual relationship, suggesting that this community was highly socially stratified and dominated by a line of powerful "[[god-king]]s".{{sfn|Cassidy et al.|2020}}
-===Northwest African Neolithic initiated by migrants from Iberia===
-{{harvnb|Simões et al.|2023}} showed that the Neolithization process in northwestern Africa was ignited by migrant Neolithic Europeans from the [[Iberian Peninsula]] around 5,500 BC.{{sfn|Simões et al.|2023}}
-==See also==
-* [[Neolithic Europe]]
-* [[Neolithic decline]]
-* [[Anatolian hunter-gatherers]]
-==References==
-{{Reflist|3}}
-==Bibliography==
-{{refbegin|20em}}
-* {{cite journal |last1=Alt |first1=Kurt W. |last2=Rodríguez |first2=Cristina Tejedor |display-authors=1 |date=7 February 2020 |title=A massacre of early Neolithic farmers in the high Pyrenees at Els Trocs, Spain |url= |journal=[[Scientific Reports]] |publisher=[[Nature Research]] |volume=10 |issue=2131 |page=2131 |doi=10.1038/s41598-020-58483-9 |pmc=7005801 |pmid=32034181 |bibcode=2020NatSR..10.2131A |ref={{harvid|Alt et al.|2020}}}}
-* {{cite journal |last1=Brace |first1=Selina |last2=Diekmann |first2=Yoan |display-authors=1 |date=15 April 2019 |title=Ancient genomes indicate population replacement in Early Neolithic Britain |url= |journal=[[Nature Ecology and Evolution]] |publisher=[[Nature Research]] |volume=3 |issue=5 |pages=765–771 |doi=10.1038/s41559-019-0871-9 |pmc=7005801 |pmid=32034181 |bibcode=2019NatEE...3..765B |ref={{harvid|Brace et al.|2019}}}}
-* {{cite journal |last1=Brunel |first1=Samantha |last2=Bennett |first2=E. Andrew |display-authors=1 |date=9 June 2020 |title=Ancient genomes from present-day France unveil 7,000 years of its demographic history |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]] |publisher=[[National Academy of Sciences]] |volume=117 |issue=23 |pages=12791–12798 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1918034117 |pmid=32457149 |pmc=7293694 |bibcode=2020PNAS..11712791B |ref={{harvid|Brunel et al.|2020}}|doi-access=free }}
-* {{cite journal |last1=Cassidy |first1=Lara M. |last2=Maoldúin |first2=Ros Ó. |display-authors=1 |date=17 June 2020 |title=A dynastic elite in monumental Neolithic society |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |publisher=[[Nature Research]] |volume=582 |issue=7812 |pages=384–388 |doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2378-6 |pmid=32555485 |s2cid=219729757 |ref={{harvid|Cassidy et al.|2020}}|pmc=7116870 |bibcode=2020Natur.582..384C }}
-* {{cite journal |last1=Fregel |first1=Rosa |last2=Méndez |first2=Fernando L. |display-authors=1 |date=26 June 2018 |title=Ancient genomes from North Africa evidence prehistoric migrations to the Maghreb from both the Levant and Europe |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]] |publisher=[[National Academy of Sciences]] |volume=115 |issue=26 |pages=6774–6779 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1800851115 |doi-access=free |pmid=29895688 |pmc=6042094 |bibcode=2018PNAS..115.6774F |ref={{harvid|Fregel et al.|2018}}}}
-* {{cite journal |last1=Simões|first1=Luciana G|last2=Günther|first2=Torsten  |display-authors=1 |date=7 June 2023|title=Northwest African Neolithic initiated by migrants from Iberia and Levant |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=618 |issue=7965 |pages=550–556 |publisher=[[Nature Research]] |doi=10.1038/s41586-023-06166-6 |doi-access=free|pmid=37286608|pmc=10266975|bibcode=2023Natur.618..550S |ref={{harvid|Simões et al.|2023}}}}
-* {{cite journal |last1=Goldberg |first1=Amy |last2=Günther |first2=Torsten |display-authors=1 |date=7 March 2017 |title=Ancient X chromosomes reveal contrasting sex bias in Neolithic and Bronze Age Eurasian migrations |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]] |publisher=[[National Academy of Sciences]] |volume=114 |issue=10 |pages=2657–2662 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1616392114 |pmc=5347611 |pmid=28223527 |bibcode=2017PNAS..114.2657G |ref={{harvid|Goldberg et al.|2017}}|doi-access=free }}
-* {{cite journal |last1=Haak |first1=Wolfgang |last2=Lazaridis |first2=Iosif |display-authors=1 |date=2 March 2015 |title=Massive migration from the steppe was a source for Indo-European languages in Europe |url= |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |publisher=[[Nature Research]] |volume=522 |issue=7555 |pages=207–211 |doi=10.1038/nature14317 |pmc=5048219 |pmid=25731166 |arxiv=1502.02783 |bibcode=2015Natur.522..207H |ref={{harvid|Haak et al.|2015}}}}
-* {{cite journal |last1=Jones |first1=Eppie R. |last2=Gonzalez-Fortes |first2=Gloria |display-authors=1 |date=16 November 2015 |title=Upper Palaeolithic genomes reveal deep roots of modern Eurasians |url= |journal=[[Nature Communications]] |publisher=[[Nature Research]] |volume=6 |issue=8912 |page=8912 |doi=10.1038/ncomms9912 |pmc=4660371 |pmid=26567969 |bibcode=2015NatCo...6.8912J |ref={{harvid|Jones et al.|2015}}}}
-* {{cite journal |last1=Jones |first1=Eppie R. |last2=Zarina |first2=Gunita |display-authors=1 |date=20 February 2017 |title=The Neolithic Transition in the Baltic Was Not Driven by Admixture with Early European Farmers |url= |journal=[[Current Biology]] |publisher=[[Cell Press]] |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=576–582 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2016.12.060 |pmc=5321670 |pmid=28162894 |ref={{harvid|Jones et al.|2017}}}}
-* {{cite journal |last1=Juras |first1=Anna |last2=Chyleński |first2=Maciej |display-authors=1 |date=2 August 2018 |title=Mitochondrial genomes reveal an east to west cline of steppe ancestry in Corded Ware populations |url= |journal=[[Scientific Reports]] |publisher=[[Nature Research]] |volume=8 |issue=11603 |page=11603 |doi=10.1038/s41598-018-29914-5 |pmc=6072757 |pmid=30072694 |bibcode=2018NatSR...811603J |ref={{harvid|Juras et al.|2018}}}}
-* {{cite journal |last1=Lazaridis |first1=Iosif |last2=Patterson |first2=Nick |display-authors=1 |date=17 September 2014 |title=Ancient human genomes suggest three ancestral populations for present-day Europeans |url= |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |publisher=[[Nature Research]] |volume=513 |issue=7518 |pages=409–413 |doi=10.1038/nature13673 |pmc=4170574 |pmid=25230663 |arxiv=1312.6639 |bibcode=2014Natur.513..409L |ref={{harvid|Lazaridis et al.|2014}}}}
-* {{cite journal |last1=Lipson |first1=Mark |last2=Szécsényi-Nagy |first2=Anna |display-authors=1 |date=8 November 2017 |title=Parallel palaeogenomic transects reveal complex genetic history of early European farmers |url= |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |publisher=[[Nature Research]] |volume=551 |issue=7680 |pages=368–372 |doi=10.1038/nature24476 |pmc=5973800 |pmid=29144465 |bibcode=2017Natur.551..368L |ref={{harvid|Lipson et al.|2017}}}}
-* {{cite journal |last1=Malmström |first1=Helena |last2=Linderholm |first2=Anna |display-authors=1 |date=19 January 2015 |title=Ancient mitochondrial DNA from the northern fringe of the Neolithic farming expansion in Europe sheds light on the dispersion process |url= |journal=[[Proceedings of the Royal Society|Proceedings of the Royal Society B]] |publisher=[[Royal Society]] |volume=370 |issue=1660 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2013.0373 |pmc=4275881 |pmid=25487325 |ref={{harvid|Malmström et al.|2015}}}}
-* {{cite journal |last1=Marcus |first1=Joseph H. |last2=Posth |first2=Cosimo |display-authors=1 |date=24 February 2020 |title=Genetic history from the Middle Neolithic to present on the Mediterranean island of Sardinia |url= |journal=[[Nature Communications]] |publisher=[[Nature Research]] |volume=11 |issue=939 |page=939 |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-14523-6 |pmc=7039977 |pmid=32094358 |bibcode=2020NatCo..11..939M |ref={{harvid|Marcus et al.|2020}}}}
-* {{cite journal |last1=Martiniano |first1=Rui |last2=Cassidy |first2=Lara M. |display-authors=1 |date=27 July 2017 |title=The population genomics of archaeological transition in west Iberia: Investigation of ancient substructure using imputation and haplotype-based methods |journal=[[PLOS Genetics]] |publisher=[[PLOS]] |volume=13 |issue=7 |pages=e1006852 |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1006852 |pmc=5531429 |pmid=28749934 |ref={{harvid|Martiniano et al.|2017}} |doi-access=free }}
-* {{cite journal |last1=Mathieson |first1=Iain |last2=Lazaridis |first2=Iosif |display-authors=1 |date=23 November 2015 |title=Genome-wide patterns of selection in 230 ancient Eurasians |url= |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |publisher=[[Nature Research]] |volume=528 |issue=7583 |pages=499–503 |doi=10.1038/nature16152 |pmc=4918750 |pmid=26595274 |bibcode=2015Natur.528..499M |ref={{harvid|Mathieson et al.|2015}}}}
-* {{cite journal |last1=Mathieson |first1=Iain |last2=Alpaslan-Roodenberg |first2=Songül |display-authors=1 |date=21 February 2018 |title=The genomic history of southeastern Europe |url= |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |publisher=[[Nature Research]] |volume=555 |issue=7695 |pages=197–203 |doi=10.1038/nature25778 |pmc=6091220 |pmid=29466330 |bibcode=2018Natur.555..197M |ref={{harvid|Mathieson et al.|2018}}}}
-* {{cite journal |last1=Olalde |first1=Iñigo|last2=Schroeder |first2=Hannes |display-authors=1 |date=2 September 2015 |title=A Common Genetic Origin for Early Farmers from Mediterranean Cardial and Central European LBK Cultures |url= |journal=[[PLOS Genetics]] |publisher=[[PLOS]] |volume=32 |issue=12 |pages=3132–3142 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msv181 |pmc=4652622 |pmid=26337550 |ref={{harvid|Olalde et al.|2015}}}}
-* {{cite journal |last1=Olalde |first1=Iñigo |last2=Mallick |first2=Swapan |display-authors=1 |date=15 March 2019 |title=The genomic history of the Iberian Peninsula over the past 8000 years |url= |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |publisher=[[American Association for the Advancement of Science]] |volume=363 |issue=6432 |pages=1230–1234 |doi=10.1126/science.aav4040  |pmc=6436108 |pmid=30872528 |bibcode=2019Sci...363.1230O |ref={{harvid|Olalde et al.|2019}}}}
-* {{cite journal |last1=Rivollat |first1=Maïté |last2=Jeong |first2=Choongwon |display-authors=1 |date=29 May 2020 |title=Ancient genome-wide DNA from France highlights the complexity of interactions between Mesolithic hunter-gatherers and Neolithic farmers |url= |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |publisher=[[American Association for the Advancement of Science]] |volume=6 |issue=22 |pages=eaaz5344 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.aaz5344  |pmc=7259947 |pmid=32523989 |bibcode=2020SciA....6.5344R |ref={{harvid|Rivollat et al.|2020}}}}
-* {{cite journal |last1=Saag |first1=Lehti |last2=Varul |first2=Liivi |display-authors=1 |date=24 July 2017 |title=Extensive Farming in Estonia Started through a Sex-Biased Migration from the Steppe |journal=[[Current Biology]] |publisher=[[Cell Press]] |volume=27 |issue=14 |pages=2185–2193 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2017.06.022 |doi-access=free |pmid=28712569 |ref={{harvid|Saag et al.|2017}}}}
-* {{cite journal |last1=Sánchez-Quinto |first1=Federico |last2=Malmström |first2=Helena |display-authors=1 |date=7 May 2019 |title=Megalithic tombs in western and northern Neolithic Europe were linked to a kindred society |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]] |publisher=[[National Academy of Sciences]] |volume=116 |issue=19 |pages=9469–9474 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1818037116 |pmc=6511028 |pmid=30988179 |bibcode=2019PNAS..116.9469S |ref={{harvid|Sánchez-Quinto et al.|2019}}|doi-access=free }}
-{{Refend}}
-==Further reading==
-{{refbegin|20em}}
-* {{cite journal |last1=Anthony |first1=David |author-link1=David W. Anthony |date=Spring–Summer 2019 |title=Archaeology, Genetics, and Language in the Steppes: A Comment on Bomhard |url=https://www.academia.edu/39985565 |access-date=9 January 2020 |journal=[[Journal of Indo-European Studies]] |volume=47 |issue=1–2 }}
-* {{cite book |last1=Anthony |first1=David W. |author-link1=David W. Anthony |year=2019b |chapter=Ancient DNA, Mating Networks, and the Anatolian Split |editor-last=Serangeli |editor-first=Matilde |editor2-last=Olander |editor2-first=Thomas |title=Dispersals and Diversification: Linguistic and Archaeological Perspectives on the Early Stages of Indo-European |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DHnEDwAAQBAJ |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|BRILL]] |pages=21–54 |isbn=978-9004416192 }}
-* {{cite journal |last1=González-Fortes |first1=Gloria |last2=Jones |first2=Eppie R. |display-authors=1 |date=19 June 2017 |title=Paleogenomic Evidence for Multi-generational Mixing between Neolithic Farmers and Mesolithic Hunter-Gatherers in the Lower Danube Basin |url= |journal=[[Current Biology]] |publisher=[[Cell Press]] |volume=27 |issue=12 |pages=1801–1810 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2017.05.023 |pmc=5483232 |pmid=28552360 |ref={{harvid|González-Fortes et al.|2017}}}}
-* {{cite journal |last1=Hofmanová |first1=Zuzana |last2=Kreutzer |first2=Susanne |display-authors=1 |date=21 June 2016 |title=Early farmers from across Europe directly descended from Neolithic Aegeans |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]] |publisher=[[National Academy of Sciences]] |volume=113 |issue=25 |pages=6886–6891 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1523951113 |pmc=4922144 |pmid=27274049 |bibcode=2016PNAS..113.6886H |ref={{harvid|Hofmanová et al.|2016}}|doi-access=free }}
-* {{cite journal |last1=Lazaridis |first1=Iosif |last2=Nadel |first2=Daniel |display-authors=1 |date=25 July 2016 |title=Genomic insights into the origin of farming in the ancient Near East |url= |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |publisher=[[Nature Research]] |volume=536 |issue=7617 |pages=419–424 |doi=10.1038/nature19310 |pmc=5003663 |pmid=27459054 |bibcode=2016Natur.536..419L |ref={{harvid|Lazaridis et al.|2016}}}}
-* {{cite journal |last1=Lazaridis |first1=Iosif |date=December 2018 |title=The evolutionary history of human populations in Europe |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959437X18300583 |access-date=15 July 2020 |journal=[[Current Opinion in Genetics & Development]] |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |volume=53 |pages=21–27 |arxiv=1805.01579 |doi=10.1016/j.gde.2018.06.007 |pmid=29960127 |s2cid=19158377 }}
-* {{cite journal |last1=Nikitin |first1=Alexey G. |last2=Stadler |first2=Peter |display-authors=1 |date=20 December 2019 |title=Interactions between earliest Linearbandkeramik farmers and central European hunter gatherers at the dawn of European Neolithization |url= |journal=[[Scientific Reports]] |publisher=[[Nature Research]] |volume=9 |issue=19544 |page=19544 |doi=10.1038/s41598-019-56029-2 |pmc=6925266 |pmid=31863024 |bibcode=2019NatSR...919544N |ref={{harvid|Nikitin et al.|2019}}}}
-* {{cite book |last1=Outram |first1=Alan K. |last2=Bogaard |first2=Amy |author-link2= Amy Bogaard |year=2019 |title=Subsistence and Society in Prehistory: New Directions in Economic Archaeology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e4K0DwAAQBAJ |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |doi=10.1017/9781316415177 |isbn=9781107128774 |s2cid=211576479 }}
-* {{cite book |last1=Reich |first1=David |author-link1=David Reich (geneticist) |year=2018 |title=Who We are and how We Got Here: Ancient DNA and the New Science of the Human Past |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uLNSDwAAQBAJ |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-882125-0 }}
-* {{cite book |last1=Shennan |first1=Stephen |author-link1=Stephen Shennan |year=2018 |title=The First Farmers of Europe: An Evolutionary Perspective |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4pheDwAAQBAJ |series=Cambridge World Archaeology |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |doi=10.1017/9781108386029 |isbn=9781108422925 }}
-{{refend}}
-{{Human genetics}}
-[[Category:Archaeogenetic lineages|EEF]]
-[[Category:Genetic history of Europe]]
-[[Category:Neolithic Europe]]
-[[Category:Modern human genetic history]]

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