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Benutzer:Cethegus/Geschichte/China

Geschichte[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]

wichtige Seiten[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History

Weltgeschichte[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]

Entstehung des Kosmos, des Lebens und Entwicklung des Menschen: hier.

Nach dem gegenwärtigen Forschungsstand hat sich der Mensch vor etwa zwei Millionen Jahren entwickelt und in lang andauernden Wanderungen über die Kontinente ausgebreitet.

Der Beginn der Hochkulturen und der Schriftkultur ist im fruchtbaren Halbmond, der Region von Mesopotamien, Syrien und Palästina, zu finden. Die Hochkulturen in Ägypten, Kleinasien und Indien wurden von dort beeinflusst.

Um 2 500 vor Christi Geburt lebten im unteren Mesopotamien die Sumerer in Stadtstaaten mit Zehntausenden von Einwohnern. Sie schrieben Keilschrift auf Tontafeln, zunächst in Bilderschrift, dann in einer daraus entwickelten Silbenschrift. Eine ähnliche Entwicklung nahm die Hieroglyphenschrift der Ägypter, die ihrerseits aufgrund ihrer Konzentration auf das Niltal eine recht einheitliche Kultur entwickelten, die durch einen umfangreichen Totenkult mit Pyramiden, Mumien, Kleinplastiken und mehr gekennzeichnet war.

Der Raum von Syrien und Palästina bot keine vergleichbaren Flusslandschaften, kannte aber ähnlich große Siedlungen und wurde schon früh von Zweistromland und Ägypten zugleich beeinflusst. Einen charakteristischen Beitrag lieferte dieser Raum später durch die Entwicklung der Buchstabenschrift und die weit ausgreifenden Entdeckungsfahrten der Phönizier.

Zu den ältesten Kulturen gehört ebenfalls die Induskultur, deren Städte mehrstöckige Häuser und Kanalisation kannten, sowie in Südamerika die Kultur von Caral, die zwar schriftlos war, aber große architektonische Leistungen hervorbrachte, die erhebliche Kenntnisse in Geometrie voraussetzen.

Die erste europäische Hochkultur war die minoische, die durch Palastbauten wie den von Knossos um 2000 v. Chr. gekennzeichnet war.

Das afrikanische Reich von Kerma (im Raum von Nubien) das um 2000 v. Chr. entstand, entwickelte sich im Austausch mit Ägypten.

Nach 1750 v. Chr. drangen Truppen von Kerma auf ägyptisches Gebiet vor, doch gelang es Ägypten nach der Bildung des Neuen Reiches um 1500 das Reich von Kerma zu unterwerfen.

Weitgehend unabhängig von den westasiatischen und nordafrikanischen Hochkulturen entwickelte sich die chinesische, die um 1500 v. Chr. die Bronzeherstellung kannte. Ob die Kenntnisse von Streitwagen und Schrift vielleicht doch auf äußere Einflüsse schließen lassen, ist noch unklar. Die Schrift entwickelte sich jedenfalls nicht zur Silbenschrift weiter.

Geschichtsschreiber[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]

mitelalterliche englische[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]

Weitere Inhalte in den
Schwesterprojekten der Wikipedia:

In dieser Periode der Geschichtsschreibung kann man zwischen Chroniken und literarischer Geschichtsschreibung unterscheiden. Während Chroniken jedes Ereignis, ob wichtig oder unwichtig, grundsätzlich nur mit einem Satz wiedergeben, schmückt literarische Geschichtsschreibung aus, so dass oft in fiktiven Reden Motive dargelegt und Argumentationen entwickelt werden, statt dass der Verfasser deutlich machte, dass diese nur seiner Interpretation der Vorgänge entstammen.

The works of this period are often categorized by Chronicles, and by literary Histories. Chroniclers recorded events and dates of events with little prose or expansion. For example the Winchcombe Annals, by a 12th century monk, wrote one paragraph for each year, no matter how much or little happened, with one-sentence for each event in that year. In this way Chronicles would often give as much, or more, attention to things of little importance as those things of greater importance.

Unlike Chronicles, the literary histories could be classified along with other forms of medieval literature. Indeed, entertainment was considered a legitimate function of historical writing. Historical accounts of battles often included long, and entirely invented, speeches from leaders. Histories were as much a part of medieval literature as other forms, such as the romance. Most of them endeavoured to be readable, arming themselves, as Roger of Wendover does, against both "the listless hearer and the fastidious reader" by "presenting something which each may relish," and so providing for the joint "profit and entertainment of all."⁠3

Another characteristic of the histories of the period is that they borrowed heavily from other writers, often directly copying entire works as their own. For example Henry of Huntingdon's History of the English is only one fourth original. This process would often be compounded as later writers would copy these works in full or part.

Bede was highly regarded by historians of this period, and later historians lamented the fact that the 223 year period between Bede's death in 735 and Eadmers History of Recent Events (starting in 960) was starkly represented. William of Malmesbury said of Bede "after him you will not easily find men who turned their minds to the composition of Latin histories of their own people".⁠4 Henry of Huntigdon referred to Bede as "that holy and venerable man, a man of brilliant mind,".⁠5

For writing contemporary history, historians could draw on their own eye witness accounts, reports from those they met and primary source documents such as letters. A good network of contacts was essential, and taking many journeys was common. Clerics assigned to the courts of Kings would often have the best access to information, such as Roger of Howden in Henry I's reign. Although some monks, such as William of Newburgh, never left their monastery, yet he was able to obtain considerable information through the network of story-telling and gossip which existed in the theoretical seclusion and silence of monastic life.

chinesische[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]

Ban Gu (班固, Wade-Giles Pan Ku; 32-92) war ein chinesischer Historiker aus der Zeit der älteren Han-Dynastie.

Sein Vater Ban Biao war ebenfalls ein bekannter Historiker. Ban Gu führte die Geschichte der frühen Han-Dynastie fort, die heute als Hanshu (漢書, or Das Buch der Han) bekannt ist. Ban Gu's Arbeit am Hanshu wurde allerdings unterbrochen, denn er kam ins Gefängnis, weil seine Familie zu der Kaiserinwitwe Dou hatte. Sein Buch wurde von seiner Schwester Ban Zhao vollendet und wurde zum Vorbild für viele spätere Geschichtswerke über Dynastien.

Ban Zhao (chinesisch 班昭, Pinyin Bān Zhāo) (ca. 35–100) lebe zur Zeit der Han-Dynastie und war die erste weibliche chinesische Historikerin. Ban Zhao /Pan Chao /Cao Dagu (c. 45/48-bef. 120 CE)

Ban Zhao (old spelling: Pan Chao) was born in the provinces to a family of scholars that had been involved for three generations with the Chinese emperor's court. Zhao had two elder brothers, twins at least 13 years older than she: Ban Gu, who would become a courtier poet and the major author of Han shu, a history of the first 200 years of Han dynasty China; and Ban Chou, who would become a general, winning important battles on China's northwest frontier.

Zhao's father, a well-known scholar who had begun the Han shu, died when she was about eight years old. She was married when she was 14, had at least one child, was widowed "early," and never remarried.

By 76 CE, Zhao's brother Chou had become a soldier, and her mother and her brother Gu were in the capital, where Gu was attached to the emperor's court as a historian and editor. Zhao, nearly 30, apparently soon joined them (it was unusual that a widow would leave her husband's family). Gu was working on the Han shu; scholars see it as "likely that she [Zhao] was already an active contributor to the project in the 70s & 80s" (Wills, p.94).

In 89, there was a new emperor, a child, so rule fell to his mother, Dowager Empress Dou, and to her family; Ban Gu became closely associated with them. In 92, the Dou family was accused of treason: the men of the family committed suicide; the empress lost her power; and the family's friends, including Gu, were executed. But no action was taken against the other Bans: Chou was a victorious general (and safely far away), Zhao was a mere woman (though her son's assignment to a distant post in about 95 has been seen by some as an exile which she shared).

By 97, however, Zhao had been called back to the capital to complete the history left unfinished at Ban Gu's death. According to a biography of Zhao written in the 400s: "[T]he emperor Ho commanded Ban Zhao to come to the Tuan Kuan Library in order to continue and complete the work..." (cited by Swann, p.40), and to supervise the work of other scholars working at the library. Because the Han shu is an important work to historians of China, the question of how much Zhao contributed to it (substantial writing? editing and polishing?) has been debated---sometimes hotly---for 1900 years. From internal evidence, the translator Nancy Lee Swann believes that Zhao is responsible for about one-fourth of the whole.

Besides working on the Han shu and administrating the imperial library, Zhao also became a teacher to the leading women of the court, particularly a 17-year-old girl, Deng, who had come to court in 96. Zhao taught Deng astronomy and mathematics as well as history and the classics. In 102, the emperor dismissed his current empress and promoted Deng to that role. When he died in 106, he was succeeded by a child who soon died and was followed by another child; through these reigns Dowager Empress Deng was regent. Ban Zhao's influence with the empress was apparently great; a contemporary wrote about one court problem, "At a word from mother Ban the whole family resigned" (cited by Swann, p. 236). We don't know the year of Zhao's death but we know that it was before 120, for the Empress, who died in that year, had gone into mourning for her (rare treatment for a commoner).

After her death, her daughter-in-law collected Zhao's written work, which the biographer of the 400s described as including "Narrative Poems, Commemorative Writings, Inscriptions, Eulogies, Argumentations, Commentaries, Elegies, Essays, Treatises, Expositions, Memorials, and Final Instructions, in all (enough to fill) 16 books" (cited by Swann, p.41). Apparently, Zhao also "annotated" an earlier work, Lienu zhuan [Lives of eminent women, 79-8 BCE]. The extant works whose attribution is sure include one long poem, "Traveling Eastward"; three short poems; two letters to the throne; and the much quoted survival manual, Nujie [Lessons for women]. In the first centuries after Zhao's death, it was her contributions to Han shu, her scholarly writing, and her poetry that were most praised. It wasn't until the 800s that Nujie became the work with which she was identified.

One passage from Zhao's biography is intriguing: "Zhao's younger sister-in-law, Cao Feng-sheng, likewise talented and cultured, wrote essays which are worth reading, in which she took issue with Ban Zhao" (cited in Swann, p.41). What did Zhao's sister-in-law take issue with? Did it have to do with Nujie? Was that too narrow-minded? too broad-minded? Or was the disagreement with one of Zhao's other writings? The sister-in-law's essays are lost.

Vom Mittelalter bis zur frühen Neuzeit[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]

Otto III.

Burchard von Ursberg (Geschichtsschreiber; Propst; vor 1177 bis 1230 oder 1231) http://mdz.bib-bvb.de/digbib/lexika/adb/images/adb003/@ebt-link?target=idmatch(entityref,adb0030568) geb. in Biberach, Schwabe um 1199 in Rom, kurz darauf Geistlicher 1202 Priester, 1205 Eintritt in Prämonstratendserkloster 1215 Propst des Stiftes Ursberg, wo er 1226 starb Beginn einer Weltchronik in Schussenried, Chronik Eckehards von Zwifalten als Vorbild Auszüge aus Johannes von Cremona (Zeitgenossen Friedrichs I.) Ab Heinrich VI. eigenständige Aufzeichnungen Staufisch orientiert, Kritik am Papst Sein Nachfolger Konrad von Lichtenau führte die Chronik bis 1229 fort

Werke MGH XXIII, S.333-339

Medieval historians/chroniclers[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]

Ancient historians[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]

Judt[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]

Doch verharrt Judt durchaus nicht bei der Darstellung sehr allgemeiner Entwicklungen, sondern er geht nicht zuletzt im Bereich der wirtschaftlichen und kulturellen Geschichte[1] durchaus auf Einzelheiten ein. So wenn er das deutsche Wirtschaftswunder in der wirtschaftlichen Gesundung in den 30er Jahren und der Schulung vieler deutscher Manager in der NS-Bürokratie begründet sieht[2] oder wenn er die kulturelle Selbstbehauptung Europas durch die Nennung einer Vielzahl einzelner Filmtitel zu belegen sucht.[3]

  1. ↑ dazu vgl. "Um 1957 begannen junge Leute zum erstenmal in der europäischen Geschichte, selbst Geld auszugeben und einzukaufen." (S.385) und "In der Architekturgeschichte der europäischen Stadt waren die fünfziger und sechziger Jahre eine wahrhaft schreckliche Epoche." (S.434)
  2. ↑ S. 393
  3. ↑ S.424 - 427
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